Main topics on the structural complexity of the human body

Main topics on the structural complexity of the human body

https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2697-topics-on-the-structural-complexity-of-the-human-body

In order for a new limb to evolve, let's say arms, not only would have there to be new information of where to locate the new limb in the body to be functional, ( hox genes ) and develop in the right sequence and order but also, at the same time, each of the seven mentioned items below would have to develop together :

1. Muscular system - essential for the movement of the body, maintains posture and circulates blood throughout the body.
2. Skeletal system - is the internal framework of the body.
3. Nervous system - is the part that coordinates its actions by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body.
4. Endocrine System- hormones are signaling molecules that target distant organs to regulate physiology and behavior.
5. Circulatory system - is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body.
6. Integumentary system - comprises the skin and its appendages acting to protect the body from various kinds of damage, such as loss of water or damages from outside
7. Lymphatic System It is part of the vascular system and an important part of the immune system, comprising a large network of lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph directionally towards the heart.


The human body is a system performing its basic functions including a set of seven well-matched interdependent systems, besides requiring five major components, 1) communication; (2) waste disposal; (3) nutrition;
(4) repair; and (5) reproduction. mutually interacting, where each part in the set is indispensable to maintaining the system's basic, and therefore original, function.  The set of these indispensable parts is known as the irreducible core of the system.

Alton Ochsner, MD Thoughts on the Human Body 2010 Spring
When we arrive on this earth we are endowed with the most perfect, the most efficient, and the best constructed machine ever devised – our body. A machine beautifully engineered and constructed with the best materials with no planned obsolescence. Constructed with material of superb quality destined with proper use to last long periods of time. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3096191/

The body's computer, the brain, is by far the most sophisticated, the finest constructed, the most efficient computer that has ever been or ever will be designed. No man-made computer can approach the efficiency of the computer each of us has. The brain's frontal lobes which contain higher centers form an extremely elaborate electrical system which monitors and operates the entire machine with an efficiency that is unknown in any other machine. Located in the brain is the center for the activation of the various motors (muscles that move our body, for monitoring the various activities which are essential for proper function, namely the pumping system, the waste disposal system, the heart-regulating system, the alarm system).

The thermostat which is located in the brain is adjusted to such a fine degree that the temperature remains constant almost at all times unless something interferes with the function of the machine. If the body generates more heat, the thermostat goes to work and opens up avenues for the dissipation of the heat, such as the dilatation of vessels on the surface of the body and outpouring of fluid on the surface to permit evaporation which tends to lower the surface temperature. An increase in the rate air is exchanged in the lungs also permits dissipation of heat. Conversely, when insufficient heat is generated or in cold areas, the valves controlling flow through the pipes (blood vessels) extending to the body surface are closed, shunting most of the fluid (blood) into the interiors and preventing the dissipation of the heat in the periphery. Also, more heat is generated by involuntary contraction of muscles, i.e. shivering.

The pumping system of the body is the most efficient of all pumping systems. It begins working while the infant is still in utero and pumps day and night without cessation until the individual dies at the age of 50, 60, 70, 80, or even 100. With no rest, it is obvious that this machine is a very efficient one. It requires a great deal of energy – much more than is ordinarily thought. The amount of energy required by the human heart at rest, i.e. asleep, is 40-foot tons in 24 hours, which is the amount of energy necessary to elevate a ton 24 feet in 24 hours, a power far too great to be supplied by a battery. Additionally, of all machines the human heart is the most efficient, a two-cylinder pump which is most efficient at the time of its greatest stress. Most pumps when under increasing stress require increasing amounts of energy. The human heart, however, requires less energy at the time of its greatest stress than when subjected to less stress. At the beginning of contraction of the heart when the blood pressure is at the resting stage (diastole) more energy is required than at the completion of the contraction when the blood pressure is highest (systole). No other pump has this degree of efficiency. The heart requires no conscious action on our part to function, but it is under the control of the nervous system to a certain extent in that its rate is slowed by stimulation of the vagus nerves and increased by stimulation of the sympathetic nerves. Normally the heart assumes its own control and is automatic in this control unless there is some external stimulus that causes it either to be slowed or to be increased in rate. With increased exertion on the part of the individual, more blood is needed to be pumped to the various parts of the body to supply more food and oxygen, resulting in an increased heart rate and pumping efficiency of the heart. 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3096191/


The system of borrowing and lending of blood whenever it is necessary is entirely automatic and goes on without the consciousness of the individual. Those portions of the machine that require the greatest amount of blood, oxygen, and food – the brain and the kidneys – are supplied with enormous amounts of blood, relatively much more than other portions of the body. The nitrogenous waste products of the body as the result of energy production are almost entirely removed from the body by the kidneys, so that enormous amounts of blood necessarily flow through the kidneys. The kidney removes from the blood the nitrogenous wastes in solution, and because water is so essential to the body, most of the water is separated from the wastes and retained in the body. The nitrogenous wastes are thus concentrated and excreted in the urine. If, however, there has been kidney damage in which this selective process of excreting the noxious substances and retaining the waters is lost, the individual loses the ability to excrete the poisons, resulting in their retention in the body and accumulation.

For any pump to operate it is necessary to supply it with energy. The human body is supplied with energy by the food that is taken in and is consumed more efficiently than in other machines. The food is masticated, swallowed, and acted upon by digestive juices in the stomach and in the intestines. As the result of chemical alterations it is absorbed into the blood streams and carried to the liver. Because toxic products and bacteria are absorbed into the blood, they must be removed, which is done very efficiently by the liver. After the food substances have been purified by the liver, they are carried in the veins back to the heart and lungs to be transported throughout the body where they can be utilized. The liver also serves as a filter to remove bacteria absorbed from the intestinal tract and also debris. In certain forms of anemia in which the red blood cells are destroyed, the liver filters out the cell debris and excretes it in the bile.

The human body is one of the most efficient chemical factories in the world. It can produce chemicals of very complex nature which are required for body functions by using the raw chemicals and building them into the complex chemical structures which are needed for the proper functioning of the machine. This is done in various portions of the body, in the liver, the glands of internal secretion, the pituitary, the adrenal, the prostate, the thyroid, and the pancreas.

Another part of the waste disposal plant is disposal of wastes through the gastrointestinal tract. After the food has been utilized and most of the essential elements have been extracted normally from them, including the water in order to conserve water, the residue is excreted from the lower intestinal tract. A very important part of the disposal system is the action of bacteria on waste products which is necessary particularly in the large intestine or colon to make a normal function of the intestinal process. These bacteria help in the chemical breakdown of the food elements that the body needs.

The body is endowed with a very good protective system which alerts one if there is danger. Largely as the result of the programming of the computer, the individual learns which conditions are hazardous. When these present themselves, the immediate reaction is an increase in the production of adrenalin which activates the heart to pump more blood and the body to respond more quickly. One is able to respond to stress more effectively than would be possible without this stimulus. As the result of programming, one learns which things are harmful and avoids them. For instance, it does not take long for children to realize that when they touch something hot and feel the sensation of heat on the skin that this is harmful. The immediate application of the heat means a recoil to protect the individual from further damage.

The body also has a tremendous back-up system that is endowed with a great deal more capability than is ordinarily used. There are a good many paired organs, two lungs, two eyes, two kidneys – each of these has a tremendous reserve far beyond what is ordinarily needed, so that a tremendous reserve is present. Also in many parts of the body there is re-generation. The cells of the body are continually being destroyed as a result of the wearing out process but are being regenerated. This is true of most of the body but not all, and this is a part of the back-up system which is essential for the proper functioning of the body.

From the above it is obvious that the human body is the most efficient and best designed system that has even been designed, but like all systems, it is subject to wear. The human body has a longevity far greater than most machines. However, it, as all machines, should not be abused but given good care and maintenance. For some reason or other we have come to believe that the human body can stand any amount of abuse and that it is not necessary for it to have care. As do all machines, the body does experience wear, although its rate of wear and deterioration depends largely upon the care it receives. If it is neglected and abused, rapid deterioration and early obsolescence and failure result. It is astounding to me how the public generally completely disregards their bodies at the same time that they take meticulous care of their automobiles, their watches, their home appliances, etc. With proper care and lack of abuse, this beautifully machined mechanism will last for a long time and function perfectly. One must avoid all factors which produce an increase in the wearing out process and do everything to ameliorate deterioration.

In the human body as in any machine, use and proper use are necessary. Too frequently we do not get exercise; we have become a sedentary people. Exercise is important daily, and it should be strenuous enough whenever possible to require rapid deep breathing and to cause an increase in the heart rate.

The endocrine and nervous system, directly and indirectly, regulate the cardiovascular system.  One depends on the other, and both had to emerge together. Both digestive and excretory systems are regulated with input from the nervous system and endocrine system, and the cardiovascular system is inextricably linked with bowel and kidney function on multiple levels. which means, these systems had to emerge altogether. The endocrine and nervous system may work together on the same organ, and each may influence the actions of the other system. The endocrine system largely governs many processes related to reproduction and sexual maturity, as well. The endocrine and nervous system are interdependent since one influences the action of the other system. The central nervous system includes the spinal cord and the brain, which gets the information from the body and sends out instructions. The peripheral nervous system includes all of the nerves and sends messages from the brain to the rest of the body. The nervous system controls both voluntary and involuntary, automatic activities and bodily functions. Both the nervous system and endocrine system serve to integrate the body's various other systems, keeping things in synch. The spinal cord, the brain, the nerves, and the cells that sense, taste, smell, hear, see form an interdependent system. Both the nervous system and endocrine system serve to integrate the body's various other systems, keeping things in synch.  Movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction; when muscles combine with the action of joints and bones, obvious movements are performed, such as jumping and walking. Muscles, bones, the nervous system, and the cardiovascular system are interdependent. One has no function without the other.

Systems of the human body:
1. Muscular system - essential for movement of the body, maintains posture and circulates blood throughout the body.
2. Skeletal system -  is the internal framework of the body.
3. Nervous system - is the part that coordinates its actions by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body.
4. Endocrine System- hormones are signalling molecules that target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour.
5. Circulatory system -  is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body.
6. Integumentary system - comprises the skin and its appendages acting to protect the body from various kinds of damage, such as loss of water or damages from outside
7. Lymphatic System It is part of the vascular system and an important part of the immune system, comprising a large network of lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph directionally towards the heart.
8. Respiratory system -  consists of specific organs and structures used for gas exchange.
9. Digestive system - consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion, and involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body.
10. Urinary system- essential to  eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH
11. Reproductive system - sex organs within an organism which works together for the purpose of sexual reproduction and giving some fun.


Structural Organization of the Human Body
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2595-structural-organization-of-the-human-body

Human organ development, it can't happen through evolution
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t1743-human-organ-development-it-can-t-happen-through-evolution

Systems of the human body
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2189-systems-of-the-human-body

The human brain, marvel of design
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t1377-the-human-brain-marvel-of-design

The Human Nervous System: Evidence of Intelligent Design
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2581-the-human-nervous-system-evidence-of-intelligent-design

The tongue - evidence of intelligent design
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2579-the-tongue-evidence-of-intelligent-design

Number of cells in the human body, and synapses in the human brain
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2597-number-of-cells-in-the-human-body-and-synapses-in-the-human-brain

Human metabolic map
http://vmh.uni.lu/#reconmap

The human proteome
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2646-the-human-proteome

Collagen, the most abundant protein in the human body, and its synthesis
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2593-collagen-the-most-abundant-protein-in-the-human-body-and-its-synthesis

How the origin of the human eye is best explained through intelligent design  
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2411-how-the-origin-of-the-human-eye-is-best-explained-through-intelligent-design

The Human Heart proves evolution wrong!
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t1911-the-human-heart-proves-evolution-wrong

Comprehensive mapping of long range interactions reveals folding principles of the human genome
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2301-comprehensive-mapping-of-long-range-interactions-reveals-folding-principles-of-the-human-genome

Science Finds 'Tiny Computers' Embedded In Human Skin
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2246-science-finds-tiny-computers-embedded-in-human-skin

Evidence of God in Human Physiology Fearfully and Wonderfully Made
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t1913-evidence-of-god-in-human-physiology-fearfully-and-wonderfully-made





https://io9.gizmodo.com/your-body-the-machine-literally-1639677357

1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3096191/

Musculoskeletal Systems
The most obvious structural parts of a house are the bricks and mortar, and their accompanying joists, rafters and foundations. These could represent the musculoskeletal systems, which give support and structure to the body, and provide a framework to which the other organs and systems attach.

Integumentary System (Skin)
The integumentary system or skin – the epidermis, and the layers of insulation in the cavity walls being likened to the fatty layers of the dermis, through which cables and pipework may be flowing.

Respiratory System
The respiratory system, which brings air from outside the body, via the nose and mouth, into the lungs, where gaseous exchange takes place, oxygen is taken into the body and moistened, and carbondioxide-rich air is expelled. If the ventilation of a building is insufficient then toxic gases may build up, which can be fatal – and this can be seen in respiration too.

Nervous System
The nervous system, with its neurons and synapses. Electrical cabling has very thick insulation, similar to the myelin sheaths surrounding some neurons. If this myelin disappears owing to disease then the message does not flow through the neuron, just as when the copper wire is exposed when it shouldn’t be, the electrical pathway short-circuits and blows a fuse.

Endocrine System
Homeostasis is defined as the ability to maintain internal stability in an organism to compensate for environmental changes. The body maintains this by having neurological sensors that detect change,

Circulatory, Lymphatic and Immune Systems 
The lymphatic system can be seen as part of the immune system; the spleen and lymph nodes offer a suitable location for lymphocytes and other cells of the immune system. The immune system is the body’s burglar alarm system, checking for entry of bacteria and viruses, and setting off alarms in the form of immunoglobulins or complement cascades when it detects any bugs.

Digestive System
The digestive system of the body chomps food using the mouth, teeth and tongue; makes it more digestible using enzymes in the stomach and duodenum; and absorbs it into the body via the small intestine. And the excess and unwanted residue is turned into faeces and expelled via our own sewerage system, the large intestine.

Excretory System
Our body filters our waste fluids and expels them via the kidneys and bladder of the excretory system.

Reproductive System
The reproductive system, housed within the pelvis, the male and female reproductive systems are designed to make unique, individualised copies of ourselves, each having a recognisably human body, yet having distinguishing features and each different from every other.

There are many reasons to reject macroevolutionary claims, namely that mutations, and natural selection, genetic drift, or gene flow explain the origin of all the varieties of body architectures on earth.

Following is a good illustrative example.

Topics on the structural complexity of the human body
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2697-topics-on-the-structural-complexity-of-the-human-body

There are eleven different, interdependent and irreducible systems in the human body, to name:

1. Muscular system - essential for movement of the body, maintains posture and circulates blood throughout the body.
2. Skeletal system - is the internal framework of the body.
3. Nervous system - is the part that coordinates its actions by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body.
4. Endocrine System- hormones are signalling molecules that target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour.
5. Circulatory system - is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body.
6. Integumentary system - comprises the skin and its appendages acting to protect the body from various kinds of damage, such as loss of water or damages from outside
7. Lymphatic System It is part of the vascular system and an important part of the immune system, comprising a large network of lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph directionally towards the heart.
8. Respiratory system - consists of specific organs and structures used for gas exchange.
9. Digestive system - consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion, and involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body.
10. Urinary system- essential to eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH
11. Reproductive system - sex organs within an organism which works together for the purpose of sexual reproduction and giving some fun.

Let us suppose that, according to the evolutionary narrative, there had to grow a new limb. Let's say, an arm. In order to be functional, there had to be several parallel mutations in the genome to define the first 7 systems in the list above for the development of the new limb.

Not only that, the genome would have to define also the right development program from embryo to the adult of the new limb. For example, the human skeleton is composed of around 270 bones at birth – this total decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones get fused together.

Besides this, most animals on earth, including humans, are symmetrical. There is a number of types of body symmetry: asymmetry, radial, bilateral, spiral, rotational, glide and metameric symmetries.

Body of bilateral animals possesses the same dorsoventral axis and yet another polarity, orthogonal to it: the anterior-posterior axis.

To get that right is not a simple feat. Genetic control mechanisms underly development. The key developmental genes fall into a relatively small set of functional classes. Most of the developmental machinery is the same between flies and vertebrates.

For example, the Drosophila egg—shaped like a cucumber— begins its development with an extraordinarily rapid series of nuclear divisions without cell division, producing multiple nuclei in a common cytoplasm—a syncytium. The nuclei then migrate to the cell cortex, forming a structure called the syncytial blastoderm. After about 6000 nuclei have been produced, the plasma membrane folds inward between them and partitions them into separate cells, converting the syncytial blastoderm into the cellular blastoderm.

The initial patterning of the Drosophila embryo DEPENDS ON SIGNALS ( pre-established and pre-programmed genetic information ! ) that diffuse through the cytoplasm at the syncytial stage and exert their actions on genes in the rapidly dividing nuclei, before the partitioning of the egg into separate cells.

Egg-polarity genes encode macromolecules deposited in the egg to organize the axes of the early Drosophila embryo

As in most insects, the main axes of the future body of Drosophila ARE DEFINED before fertilization by a COMPLEX EXCHANGE OF SIGNALS between the developing egg, In the stages before fertilization, the anteroposterior and dorsoventral axes of the future embryo become defined by FOUR systems of egg-polarity genes that create landmarks—either mRNA or protein—in the developing oocyte.

I don't want to go further into details at this point. But outline, as seen, body shape and symmetry and axes are defined by pre-programmed signals, and in drosophyla, there are FOUR systems of polarity genes required.

The different concentrations of Bicoid along the A-P axis help determine different cell fates by regulating the transcription of genes in the nuclei of the syncytial blastoderm. Of the three other egg-polarity gene systems, two contribute to patterning the syncytial nuclei along the A-P axis and one to patterning them along the D-V axis. Together with the Bicoid group of genes, and acting in a broadly similar way, their gene products mark out three fundamental partitions of body regions—head versus rear, dorsal versus ventral, and endoderm versus mesoderm and ectoderm— as well as a fourth partition, no less fundamental to the body plan of animals: the distinction between germ cells and somatic cells.

QUESTION: Had these four systems not have to emerge TOGETHER, turning them irreducible, otherwise, the result would be monster unable to survive?

Mechanisms of pattern formation
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2752-mechanisms-of-pattern-formation

Movement of fluid around the body involves:

1. Digestive system
2. Cardiovascular system
3. Respiratory system
4. Integumentary system (skin)
5. Lymphatic system
6. Musculoskeletal system
7. Immune system
8. Renal system
9. Nervous system
10. Endocrine system

and is an irreducibly complex system.

If any of these systems are not working correctly, then specific pathology occurs causing disease; the type of disease is dependent on which systems are affected.

The human body is a structural masterpiece of amazing complexity. A“structural masterpiece” with  “ingenious” systems and “highly endowed organization”

It is structured in four levels. 

1. The cells are the smallest unit of life. 
2. Tissues (muscle tissue, nerve tissue, etc.) are groups of the same kind of cells carrying on the same kind of activity. 
3. Organs (heart, liver, etc.) are groups of tissues working together in unison. 
4. There are systems (reproductive system, circulatory system, etc.) that are composed of groups of organs carrying out specific organismal functions.

The Body’s Cells 
A human body is composed of over 30 different kinds of cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, nerve cells, etc.), totaling approximately 37 trillion cells in an adult. These cells come in a variety of sizes and shapes, with different functions and life expectancies. All the cells of the human body, if set end-to-end, would encircle the Earth over 200 times. Even the largest cell of the human body, the female ovum, is unbelievably small, being only 0.01 of an inch in diameter. Cells have three major components. First, each cell is composed of a cell membrane that encloses the organism. Second, inside the cell is a three-dimensional cytoplasm—a watery matrix containing specialized organelles. Third, within the cytoplasm is the nucleus, which contains most of the genetic material, and which serves as the control center of the cell. The lipoprotein cell membrane (lipids/proteins/lipids) allows selective transport into, and out of, the cell. Ernest Borek has observed: “The membrane recognizes with its uncanny molecular memory the hundreds of compounds swimming around it and permits or denies passage according to the cell’s requirements” (1973, p. 5). Inside the cytoplasm, there are over 1500 different chemical reactions occurring at any one time, with each cell containing five major components for: 

(1) communication; 
(2) waste disposal; 
(3) nutrition; 
(4) repair; and 
(5) reproduction. 

Within this watery matrix there are such organelles as the mitochondria (over 1,000 per cell in many instances) that provide the cell with its energy. The endoplasmic reticulum is a “...transport system designed to carry materials from one part of the cell to the other” (Pfeiffer, 1964, p. 13). Ribosomes are miniature protein-producing factories. Golgi bodies store the proteins manufactured by the ribosomes. Lysosomes within the cytoplasm function as garbage disposal units. The nucleus is the control center of the cell and is separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane. Within the nucleus is the genetic machinery of the cell (chromosomes and genes containing deoxyribonucleic acid—DNA). The DNA is a supermolecule that carries the coded information for the replication of the cell. If the DNA from a single human cell were removed from the nucleus and unraveled (it is found in the cell in a spiral configuration), it would be approximately six feet long and would contain over 3 billion base pairs. It has been estimated that if all the DNA in an adult human were placed end-to-end, it would reach to the Sun and back (186 million miles) 400 times.

In an article written for Encyclopaedia Britannica, Carl Sagan observed that “the information content of a simple cell has been estimated as around 1012 bits [i.e., one trillion—BT/WJ]...” (1974, 10:894). To emphasize to the reader the enormity of this figure, Dr. Sagan then noted that if one were to count every letter in every word of every book in the world’s largest library (over ten million volumes), the final tally would be approximately a trillion letters. Thus, a single cell contains the equivalent information content of every book in the world’s largest library of more than ten million volumes! Every rational person recognizes that not one of the books in such a library “just happened.”

We know that in numerous cases certain effects always have intelligent causes, such as dictionaries, sculptures, machines and paintings. We reason by analogy that similar effects have intelligent causes

In like manner, an intelligible communication via radio signal from some distant galaxy would be widely hailed as evidence of an intelligent source. Why then doesn’t the message sequence on the DNA molecule also constitute prima facie evidence for an intelligent source? After all, DNA information is not just analogous to a message sequence such as Morse code, it is such a message sequence....


The Body’s Tissues 
In the human body, there are numerous tissues (e.g., muscle tissues, nerve tissues, etc.). In fact, a single human has more than 600 muscles (containing about six billion muscle fibers), composing about 40% of the body’s weight. According to I.M. Murray, professor of anatomy at the State University of New York, muscles are the “engines” of the body that provide the power for movement (1969, p. 22). Some muscles are tiny, such as those regulating the amount of light entering the eye, while others, like those in the legs, are massive. Muscles may be classified either as “voluntary” (i.e., under the control of the human will), or “involuntary” (i.e., not under control of the will). The voluntary muscles of the arms, for example, are attached to the bones by tough cords of connective tissue called tendons. One must “think” in order to move these muscles. The involuntary muscles are those whose contraction and relaxation cannot be controlled consciously (e.g., the heart and intestines). Some muscles are both voluntary and involuntary (e.g., the muscles controlling the eyelids, and the diaphragm). All muscles, in one way or another, are regulated by the nervous system.

Muscles work by contracting (tightening). When they contract, they shorten, thus exerting a “pull” (muscles do not “push”). Frequently, muscles work in pairs, as in the voluntary skeletal muscles. The biceps in the upper arm pulls the forearm forward, whereas the triceps moves the forearm downward. While one works, the other rests. The design inherent in such tissues is utterly amazing.

Some muscles, like those attached to the skeleton, are analogous to strong steel cables. Each muscle is constructed of long cells combined in small bundles called fibers. These bundles are bound together, making larger bundles of which the whole muscle consists. Muscle fibers vary in size from a few hundred-thousandths of an inch, to an inch or inch-and-a-half in length. Each muscle has its own stored supply of high-grade fuel, especially sugar (glycogen), which the body has manufactured from food that has been consumed. This analogy may be helpful. In an automobile engine, the spark ignites vaporized gasoline, the piston moves, and keeps moving in response to a series of explosions. “A muscle performs the functions of both the spark and the piston; the cell itself splits a molecule of fuel and also exerts the resulting physical power” (Miller and Goode, 1960, p. 23). If it is clear that an automobile engine was intelligently designed, why is it not reasonable to draw the same conclusion with reference to muscles. Lenihan, even though an evolutionist, writes: “The body’s engines [muscles—BT/WJ]...demonstrate some surprisingly modern engineering ideas” (1974, p. 43). The question is: Who initiated these “engineering ideas”?

Connected to the skeletal muscle is a nerve. The nerve conveys a signal telling the muscle when to contract or relax. Obviously, there must be precise orchestration between the skeletal muscle system and the nervous system. Without doubt, their cooperative nature was planned. Some muscles, like those in the stomach, are stimulated to work by means of chemicals call hormones.

Further, there is a precisely integrated relationship between muscles and bones. Here is just one such example. “As certain muscles increase in strength, they pull harder than before on the bones to which they are attached. With this as a stimulus, bone-forming cells build new bone to give internal reinforcement where necessary” (Shryock, 1968, p. 27). Would this indicate design?

The human body, amazing evidence of design

https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2697-main-topics-on-the-structural-complexity-of-the-human-body#7474

The more I think about the human body, the more I become aware of how incomprehensibly phenomenal it is. Its complexity is far beyond anything that we could think of, or imagine. It is a structural masterpiece with  “ingenious” systems and “highly endowed organization”. When we arrive on this earth we are endowed with the most perfect, the most efficient, and the best constructed machine ever devised – our body. A machine beautifully engineered and constructed with the best materials with no planned obsolescence. Constructed with material of superb quality destined with proper use to last long periods of time. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3096191/

The body's computer, the brain, is by far the most sophisticated, the finest constructed, the most efficient computer that has ever been or ever will be designed. No man-made computer can approach the efficiency of the computer each of us has. 

It is structured in four levels.

1. The cells are the smallest unit of life.
2. Tissues (muscle tissue, nerve tissue, etc.) are groups of the same kind of cells carrying on the same kind of activity.
3. Organs (heart, liver, etc.) are groups of tissues working together in unison.
4. There are systems (reproductive system, circulatory system, etc.) that are composed of groups of organs carrying out specific organismal functions.

A human body is composed of over 200 different kinds of cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, nerve cells, etc.), totaling approximately 37 trillion cells in an adult, and within these cells there are about 20 different types of structures or organelles. These cells come in a variety of sizes and shapes, with different functions and life expectancies. All the cells of the human body, if set end-to-end, would encircle the Earth over 200 times. Inside the cell's liquid, the cytoplasm, there are over 1500 different chemical reactions occurring at any one time, with each cell containing five major components for:

(1) communication;
(2) waste disposal;
(3) nutrition;
(4) repair; and
(5) reproduction.

Movement of fluid around the body involves:

1. Digestive system
2. Cardiovascular system
3. Respiratory system
4. Integumentary system (skin)
5. Lymphatic system
6. Musculoskeletal system
7. Immune system
8. Renal system
9. Nervous system
10. Endocrine system

In an article written for Encyclopaedia Britannica, Carl Sagan observed that “the information content of a simple cell has been estimated as around 10^12 bits [i.e., one trillion ].” . To emphasize to the reader the enormity of this figure, Dr. Sagan then noted that if one were to count every letter in every word of every book in the world’s largest library (over ten million volumes), the final tally would be approximately a trillion letters. Thus, a single cell contains the equivalent information content of every book in the world’s largest library of more than ten million volumes! Every rational person recognizes that not one of the books in such a library “just happened.”

We know that in numerous cases certain effects always have intelligent causes, such as dictionaries, sculptures, machines and paintings. We reason by analogy that similar effects have intelligent causes

In like manner, an intelligible communication via radio signal from some distant galaxy would be widely hailed as evidence of an intelligent source. Why then doesn’t the message sequence on the DNA molecule also constitute prima facie evidence for an intelligent source? After all, DNA information is not just analogous to a message sequence such as Morse code, it is such a message sequence....

If the DNA from a single human cell were removed from the nucleus and unraveled (it is found in the cell in a spiral configuration), it would be approximately six feet long and would contain over 3 billion base pairs. It has been estimated that if all the DNA in an adult human were placed end-to-end, it would reach to the Sun and back (186 million miles) 400 times. A current estimation of human total cell numbers calculated for a variety of organs and cell types correspond to a total number of 3.72 × 10^13, or about 37 trillion cells. Something is immediately clear. There is no one to one relation between genotype and phenotype. This is a huge problem for a gene-centric view, and for who advocates that genes are the main sources of instructional information to make organismal form and architecture. Of course, the question is, if not genes, what doe really drive organismal development, and form?

Consider, that EACH of the 37 trillion cells ( each human cell hosts about 2,3 billion proteins and 6 million different protein species ) has to be specified in regards of: 

1. Cell phenotype
2. Cell size
3. It's specific function,
4. How it is interconnected with other cells,
5. What communication it requires to communicate with other cells, and the setup of the communication channels
6. What specific sensory and stimuli functions are required and does it have to acquire in regard to its environment and surroundings?
7. What specific new regulatory functions it acquires
8. When will the development program of the organism express the genes to grow the new cells during development?
9. Precisely how many new cell types must be produced for each tissue and organ?
10. Specification of the cell-cell adhesion and which ones will be used in each cell to adhere to the neighbor cells ( there are 4 classes )
11. Programming of  time period the cell keeps alive in the body, and when is it time to self-destruct and be replaced by newly produced cells of the same kind
12. Set up its specific nutrition demands, and
13. Position and place in the body. This is crucial. Limbs like legs, fins, eyes etc. must all be placed at the right place.

Following is a list of organs of the human body. It is widely believed that there are 100 organs. The following list contains many more than 79 different organs.

Muscular system Edit
Main article: Musculoskeletal system
See also: List of bones of the human skeleton and List of muscles of the human body
* Human skeleton
* Joints
* Ligaments
* Muscular system
* Tendons
Digestive system Edit
Main article: Digestive system
* Mouth
* Teeth
* Tongue
* Salivary glands
* Parotid glands
* Submandibular glands
* Sublingual glands
* Pharynx
* Esophagus
* Stomach
* Small intestine
* Duodenum
* Jejunum
* Ileum
* Large intestine
* Liver
* Gallbladder
* Mesentery
* Pancreas
* Anal canal and anus
* Blood cells
Respiratory system Edit
Main article: Respiratory system
* Nasal cavity
* Pharynx
* Larynx
* Trachea
* Bronchi
* Lungs
* Diaphragm
Urinary system Edit
Main article: Urinary system
* Kidneys
* Ureter
* Bladder
* Urethra
Reproductive organs Edit
Female reproductive system Edit
Main article: Female reproductive system
* Internal reproductive organs
* Ovaries
* Fallopian tubes
* Uterus
* Vagina
* External reproductive organs
* Vulva
* Clitoris
* Placenta
Male reproductive system Edit
Main article: Male reproductive system
* Internal reproductive organs
* Testes
* Epididymis
* Vas deferens
* Seminal vesicles
* Prostate
* Bulbourethral glands
* External reproductive organs
* Penis
* Scrotum
Endocrine system Edit
Main article: Endocrine system
* Pituitary gland
* Pineal gland
* Thyroid gland
* Parathyroid glands
* Adrenal glands
* Pancreas
Circulatory system Edit
Circulatory system Edit
Main article: Circulatory system
See also: List of arteries of the human body and List of veins of the human body
* Heart
* Patent Foramen Ovale
* Arteries
* Veins
* Capillaries
Lymphatic system Edit
Main article: Lymphatic system
* Lymphatic vessel
* Lymph node
* Bone marrow
* Thymus
* Spleen
* Gut-associated lymphoid tissue
* Tonsils
* Interstitium
Nervous system Edit
* • Brain
* Cerebrum
* Cerebral hemispheres
* Diencephalon
* The brainstem
* Midbrain
* Pons
* Medulla oblongata
* Cerebellum
* The spinal cord
* The ventricular system
* Choroid plexus
Peripheral nervous system Edit
See also: List of nerves of the human body
* Nerves
* Cranial nerves
* Spinal nerves
* Ganglia
* Enteric nervous system
Sensory organs Edit
Main article: Sensory system
* Eye
* Cornea
* Iris
* Ciliary body
* Lens
* Retina
* Ear
* Outer ear
* Earlobe
* Eardrum
* Middle ear
* Ossicles
* Inner ear
* Cochlea
* Vestibule of the ear
* Semicircular canals
* Olfactory epithelium
* Tongue
* Taste buds
Integumentary system Edit
Main article: Integumentary system
* Mammary glands
* Skin
* Subcutaneous tissue

Erection of multicellular structures needs something that unicellulars do not: huge amounts of information for the strictly determined spatial arrangement of a myriad of cells of different types and a mechanism for transmitting that information to the offspring.

Transmitting huge amounts of epigenetic information from parents to the offspring is a prerequisite for complex multicellular life.

The genetic information encodes proteins, but there is no indication, let alone proof, that it determines the specific spatial arrangement of billions or trillions of cells of various types in the animal body. The amount of information contained not only in genes but in the whole human genome, including the “junk” DNA, quantitatively represents only a negligible fraction of the information necessary for molding an animal structure.

A human brain alone has at least one trillion nerve cells. Before birth, that is experience-independently, each neuron establishes an average of 10,000 specific connections with specific neurons, implying that information for establishing these connections alone is of the order of quadrillions of bits, millions of times greater than the total amount of information contained in the genomic DNA.

The Control System and the Epigenetic System of Heredity in Metazoans

How can an organism, whose structure at the molecular, cellular, and supracellular levels is continually disintegrating, succeed in maintaining that complex structure and function during its lifetime? Metazoans succeed in doing so unambiguously proves that they

– Continually monitor the state of the system,
– Figure out structural losses, based on the presence of information about the normal structure,
– Figure out restitutive necessities, and
– Start signal cascades and activate GRN for replacing the lost structures at the right time and place.

The maintenance of multicellular structures implies possession by the control system of information on the normal structure.

Question: How did this control system emerge? Did it not require to have a priori " knowledge " of the normal structure? Does monitoring and figuring out based on a control system which constantly compares the actual state to what it has to be, as used in engineering,  not require the previous input of information, both, of how the correct homeostatic situation has to be, and how to control that state of affairs, and in case of disease and homeostatic imbalance, how to activate signal cascades in order to replace the lost structures?  Are engineering, monitoring, figuring out, controlling not all activities exclusively pre-programmed by intelligence in order to be able to be performed autonomously?  

The above functions performed by metazoans are typical functions of control systems, in principle similar to the control systems used in engineering. No metazoan would exist as such in the absence of a control system. The presence of a control system is one of the fundamental features of living, as opposed to anorganic, systems. That control system makes possible the development and maintenance of the metazoan organism, a thermodynamically improbable structure.

In metazoans, this is an integrated control system (ICS) with the central nervous system CNS as its controller. During reproduction, the integrated control system (ICS)  serves as the epigenetic system of heredity, which controls individual development. This epigenetic system organizes cells in the supracellular multicellular structures, parts, and organs, and the morphology in general.

In the process of metazoan reproduction, the integrated control system (ICS) functions as the epigenetic system of heredity. The individual development from the egg/ zygote to adulthood is a bigenerational process in which early development from the unicellular stage to the phylotypic stage takes place based on the epigenetic information provided parentally to the gametes.

In the second, the postphylotypic stage, the embryo is in possession of an operational CNS, which generates and provides information for the rest of the individual development, organogenesis and morphogenesis. After the phylotypic stage, electrical signals resulting from the processing of external/internal stimuli in neural circuits in the CNS (neural net in lower invertebrates) determine the activation of specific signal cascades leading to the development of specific morphological traits. The epigenetic information for metazoan morphology is computationally generated in the CNS by processing the input of internal/external stimuli.

Ample empirical evidence shows that the inductive signals for the development of tissues and organs during individual development originate in the CNS. During adult life, as well, signal cascades for the maintenance of animal morphology and homeostasis come from the CNS, via neuroendocrine cascades, often with essential participation of the local innervation.

Development of the metazoan structure requires a considerable investment of matter, free energy, and information. With matter and free energy is taken from the environment in the form of food, where does the information for the individual development and restitution of the disintegrating metazoan’s supracellular structure come from? That is, the source of the information necessary for the prenatal, i.e., experience-independent, the establishment of trillions or quadrillions of specific connections among neurons?  Biologists believe that this information resided in the nervous system, but that does not answer the origin or source of the information. The development of various organs during embryogenesis is induced by signals and signal cascades originating in the central nervous system CNS. But the meaning of these signals, and the interpretation of those, had to be pre-programmed, and pre-established. 1

Since instructional complex information comes always from intelligence, I would say, most probably, the information was pre-programmed by the intelligent designer.

1. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/An-estimation-of-the-number-of-cells-in-the-human-Bianconi-Piovesan/41c3dfda0d261070d84a2070c8b70b1f86cab52d

https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2697-main-topics-on-the-structural-complexity-of-the-human-body#7474

Where Do Complex Organisms Come From?
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2316-evolution-where-do-complex-organisms-come-from

Musculoskeletal Systems - Integumentary System - (Skin) Respiratory System -  Nervous System -  Endocrine System -  Circulatory - Lymphatic and Immune Systems -  Digestive System - Excretory System -  Reproductive System

Striated muscle tissue is a muscle tissue that features repeating functional units called sarcomeres. The presence of sarcomeres manifests as a series of bands visible along the muscle fibers. Sarcomeres, the smallest contractile units of striated muscle. Accessory proteins maintain precise alignment of thin and thick filaments within the sarcomere. I list over 40 ESSENTIAL, aka irreducible, interdependent components required in the Sarcormere for function. 1

Bone formation (osteogenesis) depends on at least 11 ESSENTIAL, aka irreducible interdependent components 2

Integumentary System

1. https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2671-titin-the-largest-proteins-known-and-the-titin-telethonin-complex-the-strongest-protein-bond-found-so-far-in-nature
2. https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2296-origin-and-development-of-bones-osteogenesis

The human body has at last six memory systems -
* The short term memory system which we use to remember phone numbers for a few seconds
* "Muscle" memory where we learn physical skills such as how to catch a ball or wield a bat
* Long term memory which most people mean when they talk of memory
* Genetic memory where DNA carries instructions to replicate cells
* Epigenetic methylation "switches" which turn genes on and off in response to environmental stimuli.
* Immunological memory where the immune system remembers pathogens which have been encountered so they can be defeated when they next invade.
No doubt there are others. Some of these memory systems don't involve the central nervous system over these we have no direct control and very little over the others. If we did we would be able to erase unpleasant memories and avoid post-traumatic stress disorders.

The 3230 genes you can’t do without

https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/11/3230-genes-you-can-t-do-without#:~:text=Fiddle%20just%20a%20little%20bit,us%20before%20we're%20born.

Fiddle just a little bit with any one of about 3200 genes in the human body and you could be toast. That’s the conclusion of a new study, which finds that about 15% of our 20,000 genes are so critical to our livelihood that certain changes can kill us before we’re born.

Whenever one of these genes mutates, the embryo usually dies or the person is too sick to reproduce—so the variation disappears.

NOT ALL GENES ARE ESSENTIAL, BUT AT LEAST 15% ARE

https://thedishonscience.stanford.edu/posts/essential-genes/

ExAC also found that 3,230 genes had hardly any protein-truncating variants. Over 15% of our genes fall in this absolutely essential category. For the rest of our genes, there may be consequences to losing them, but they’re not so essential that we can’t live without them.

My comment: If we can't live without them, that basically means, the human body is irreducibly complex. That rises the question, how we got these genes in the first place.

THE HUMAN BODY:

1: Number of bones: 206
2: Number of muscles: 639
3: Number of kidneys: 2
4: Number of baby teeth: 20
5: Number of ribs: 24 (12 pairs)
6: Heart Camera Number: 4
7: Largest Artery: Aorta
8: Normal blood pressure: 120/80 mmhg
9: Ph of blood: 7.4
10: Number of vertebrae in the spine: 33
11: Number of neck vertebrae: 7
12: Number of bones in the middle ear: 6
13: Number of bones in the face: 14
14: Number of bones in the skull: 22
15: Number of bones in the chest: 25
16: Number of bones in the arms: 6
17: Number of muscles in the human arm: 72
18: Number of heart bombs: 2
19: Greater Organ: Skin
20: Major gland: Liver
21: Largest cell: female egg
22: Smaller cell: Sperm
23: Minor bone: Middle ear stirrup
24: First organ transplanted: Kidney
25: Average length of small intestine: 7 m
26: Average length of large intestine: 1.5 m
27: Average weight of the newborn baby: 3 kg
28: Pulse rate in one minute: 72 times
29: Normal body temperature: 37°C (98.4°F)
30: Average blood volume: 4 to 5 LITERS
31: LAPSE OF LIFE Red blood cells: 120 days
32: LAPSE OF LIFE. White blood cells: 10 to 15 days.
33: Period of pregnancy: 280 days (40 weeks)
34: Number of bones in human foot: 33
35: Number of bones in each doll: 8
36: Number of bones in the hand: 27
37: Largest endocrine gland: Thyroid
38: Largest lymphatic organ: Spleen
40: Largest and strongest bone: Femur
41: Minor muscle: Stapedius (middle ear)
41: Chromosome number: 46 (23 pair)
42: Number of newborn baby bones: 306
43: Blood viscosity: 4.5 to 5.5
44: Universal donor blood group: The
45: Universal recipient blood group: AB
46: Largest white blood cell: Monozinho
47: smallest white blood cell: lymphocyte
48: Increased red blood cell count is called: Polycythemia
49: Blood bank in the body is: Spleen
50: River of life is called: Blood
51: Normal blood cholesterol level: 100 mg / dl
52: Fluid part of the blood is: Plasma

A perfectly designed machine that allows you to enjoy this adventure called life. Take care of her. Do not harm it with addictions and excesses.

10 Design Perfections in the Human Body
http://www.oregonexercisetherapy.com/blog/10-design-perfections-in-the-human-body

In order for a new limb to evolve, let's say arms, not only would have there to be new information of where to locate the new limb in the body to be functional, ( hox genes ) and develop in the right sequence and order but also, at the same time, each of the seven mentioned items  would have to develop together : Muscular sytem, the Skeletal, Nervous , Endocrine, Circulatory, Integumentary, Lymphatic system.

Human organ development, it can't happen through evolution

There are many examples of irreducible complexity, that could be cited. Consider the circulatory system. It consists of blood, veins, arteries, and the heart. The blood in turn consists of plasma and red and white corpuscles, and more. The heart consists of chambers, muscles, valves, a timing mechanism, blood vessels to nourish the heart tissue, and nerves to control the heart muscles. To be useful, the arteries require the entire respiratory system to provide them with oxygen and require the entire digestive system to provide them with food and water. Also, the heart nerves require a connection to the nervous system to control the timing of the heart muscles. These required respiratory, digestive, and nervous systems are complex systems within themselves, having many components. With all these components in place and properly connected they perform a beautiful function. They keep us alive. But take away any component, and death is the result. What good would the incipient development or even the complete development of any of these components be in the absence and proper connection of all the other components? What good would the blood vessels be for without the heart, and the blood? I consider this argument to be the most powerful argument the creationists have. More importantly, this argument alone is enough to convince me that God had to be involved in some way, even if evolution was apart of the process.

To grow a limb, you need 1. Muscular system 2. Skeletal system 3. Nervous system 4. Endocrine System 5. Circulatory system 6. Integumentary system 7. Lymphatic System ALL AT ONCE.

These days, we celebrate Elon Musk, Boston Robotics, etc. which unravel humanoid Robots, made, designed, and developed over time, using enormous man-brain power.

"World's Most Advanced Humanoid Robot" Is pretty impressive. It Can Now Have Full Conversations
https://www.iflscience.com/-world-s-most-advanced-humanoid-robot-can-now-have-full-conversations-65355

Open AI published a groundbreaking paper titled Language Models Are Few-Shot Learners. They presented GPT-3, a language model that holds the record for being the largest neural network ever created with 175 billion parameters. It’s an order of magnitude larger than the largest previous language models.
https://towardsdatascience.com/gpt-3-a-complete-overview-190232eb25fd

Elon Musk reveals a humanoid robot at Tesla AI Day 2022
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UXHoWNfjJYM

One of the first recorded designs of a humanoid robot was made by Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) in around 1495. Leonardo’s notebooks, rediscovered in the 1950s, contain detailed drawings of a mechanical knight in armour which was able to sit up, wave their arms and move their head and jaw.

Around 1700, many automata were built, some of which could act, draw, fly, or play music; some of the most famous works of the period were created by Jacques de Vaucanson in 1737, including an automaton flute player, a tambourine player, and his most famous work, “The Digesting Duck“. Vaucanson’s duck was powered by weights and could imitate a real duck by flapping its wings (there were over 400 parts in each of the wings alone), eat grain, digest it, and defecate by excreting matter stored in a hidden compartment.

https://www.roboticsacademy.com.au/history-of-robots/#:~:text=The%20first%20humanoid%20robot%20was,at%20least%20April%2030%2C%201950.

We are impressed with humans building humanoid robots, and neural networks with 175 billion parameters. But that's still nothing compared to the structural complexity of the human body, made of 37 trillion cells, each cell containing 2 billion proteins. The number of proteins in our body probably exceeds the number of stars in the entire universe. Our brain is made of 100 billion neurons, each with up to 10 thousand synapses.

Each neuron may be connected to up to 10,000 other neurons, passing signals to each other via as many as 1,000 trillion synaptic connections, equivalent by some estimates to a computer with a 1 trillion bit per second processor. Estimates of the human brain’s memory capacity vary wildly from 1 to 1,000 terabytes (for comparison, the 19 million volumes in the US Library of Congress represents about 10 terabytes of data).
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2080-neurons-synapses

Alton Ochsner, MD Thoughts on the Human Body 2010 Spring
When we arrive on this earth we are endowed with the most perfect, the most efficient, and the best-constructed machine ever devised – our body. A machine beautifully engineered and constructed with the best materials with no planned obsolescence. Constructed with material of superb quality destined with proper use to last long periods of time. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3096191/

The body's computer, the brain, is by far the most sophisticated, the finest constructed, the most efficient computer that has ever been or ever will be designed. No man-made computer can approach the efficiency of the computer each of us has.

So we are all impressed with the advance of robotics, and humanoid robots, and nobody would believe that such a robot would ever self-assemble by random chance or evolutionary mechanisms. But our human body, far more advanced, unimaginably more complex, should be the product of random nonintelligent processes, that created life, and then evolutionary mechanisms, that selected the fittest alleles, and we were created over billions of years?

I do have not enough faith in such claims and propositions. I do have not enough faith to be an atheist. I regard those that claim that Adam and Eve are a myth, as blind, non-educated people, making foolish claims.

Main topics on the structural complexity of the human body
https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2697-topics-on-the-structural-complexity-of-the-human-body

Sciencedaily:  How a single cell gives rise to the 37 trillion cells in an average adult

One of great mysteries of human biology is how a single cell can give rise to the 37 trillion cells contained in the average body, each with its own specialized role. Researchers have devised a way to recreate the earliest stages of cellular development that gives rise to such an amazing diversity of cell types. Using skin cells harvested from two living humans, researchers in the lab of Yale's Flora Vaccarino were able to track their cellular lineage by identifying tiny variations or mutations contained within the genomes of those cells.

These "somatic" or non-inherited mutations are generated at each cell division during a human's development. The percentage of cells bearing the traces of any given mutation decreases as these divisions continue, essentially leaving for scientists a trail to follow back to the earliest cells. If the fraction of cells with traces of a mutation is high, scientists know that the mutation was generated earlier in the cells' lineage, closer to its one common ancestor during early embryonic development.

For instance, researchers knew some mutations within skin cells were generated early in embryonic development because they could also be detected in adult samples of blood, saliva, and urine. In the human body, each of those specialized tissues arise from a different germ layer, or the first differentiated cell types in an embryo that give rise to nervous system, gut, blood, and connecting tissues.

The findings show that mutations generated in the embryo are inherited and retained by each daughter cell throughout the body's development into adulthood, allowing researchers to reconstruct the early lineage trees for those individuals.

"Cellular history has consequences," Vaccarino said.

The findings also may help scientists to trace developmental disorders back to their cellular beginnings. For instance, neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and autism can arise from early cellular malfunctions that hijack early developmental regulators. This may alter the growth and expansion of certain cell lineages or when they separate to form new cell lines during development.

Intriguingly, the researchers also found that cell lineages that diverge at the first division tend to be asymmetrical. For instance, one of the first two daughter cells created in an embryo ends up accounting for as much as 90 percent of cell types in the adult body. The other daughter cell could be dedicated primarily to creating the placenta, which will nurture the growing embryo, the researchers say.

Vaccarino stressed that the technology to track individual differences in cellular ancestry during each step of cellular development is still limited.

But it is promising. "We have figured out a minimally invasive way to peer into a window of a person's personal cellular history," she said.

Alexej Abyzov of the Mayo Clinic is co-senior author of the paper. Co-first authors are Liana Fasching, a postdoctoral associate at the Yale School of Medicine, and Yeongjun Jang of the Mayo Clinic.

Sciencedaily:  How a single cell gives rise to the 37 trillion cells in an average adult March 18, 2021

Did you know that building your body required all of the following types of engineering that goes into studying and designing it?
He needs:
Structural engineering in building his bones
Mechanical and force engineering in building muscles and joints
Electrical engineering in building his nerves that extend to his entire body like electricity wires and through the electricity of his heart and brain
Computer and communications engineering in building his brain
Software engineering manages and automates the work of every cell through the DNA in the nucleus of its cells
Sensor engineering in building sight, hearing, and sense of temperature, pressure, etc
Irrigation engineering to build his heart and arteries
Drainage engineering in building his veins, kidneys, and digestive system
Hydraulic engineering through blood flow in the body
Energy engineering in building mitochondria in its cells, which are the energy production plants in the body
Nutritional engineering in building its digestive system and ribozymes in its cells
Genetic engineering and genes
Organic chemistry engineering in cell interactions and building body molecules
Engineering its defense system through its immune system and its resistance to germs and diseases
Optical engineering, the laws of reflection and refraction, and all the laws of physics, from solutions to diffusion to electrochemistry to physiology, and the rest is known only to the Creator who designed and built it.
Mathematical engineering goes into the dimensions and measurements of his body and the golden ratio of the dimensions of his face. If you want to understand what I am saying, remember the dwarves to know how beautiful you are and who designed your body to be more beautiful.
If all that engineering had participated in his study and design, was it coincidence that brought together all kinds of specializations to create a human being? And whoever said to the heart, “Be a heart, it will keep beating, and this is your role.” And whoever said to the brain, “Be a brain and control all the body’s actions,” and whoever said to the kidneys, “Be a totality and rise.” By purifying the blood, this is your role
Who distributed tasks and functions to the body’s organs and each organ knew its role and carried it out obediently without opposition or hesitation?!
If a robot needed an army of engineers and genius programmers to create a machine that did not sense what it was doing and did not compete with the intelligence of a cockroach or a fly.
Doesn't the creation of the miraculous and amazing human body require a Creator whose knowledge, power, and ability are limitless?!
The topic is for you to think about and know how great your Creator is and the Creator of this huge, precise universe governed by calculated and balanced laws.

The Irreducible Complexity and Multifunctionality of Human Organs and Structures: Evidence for Intelligent Design

The human body is a marvel of multifunctional design, with various organs and structures serving multiple purposes. The complexity and multifunctionality of human organs and structures pose a formidable challenge to evolutionary explanations. While proponents of evolution often emphasize gradual changes over time, accounting for the simultaneous development of multiple functions within a single organ or structure remains an arduous task. The diverse array of functions exhibited by various organs and structures in the human body illustrates this complexity.

1. The Liver, a Multifunctional Powerhouse: Metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, detoxification of harmful substances, production of bile for digestion, storage of vitamins and minerals, and synthesis of blood proteins.

Metabolic Functions
a. Carbohydrate Metabolism: The liver plays a critical role in maintaining blood glucose levels through glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis.
b. Lipid Metabolism: It synthesizes cholesterol and lipoproteins, and converts excess carbohydrates and proteins into fatty acids and triglycerides.
c. Protein Metabolism: The liver deaminates amino acids, forms urea, and synthesizes plasma proteins such as albumin and clotting factors.

Detoxification
d. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies various metabolites, drugs, and toxins, transforming them into less harmful substances or facilitating their excretion.
e. Alcohol Metabolism: It metabolizes alcohol through enzymes like alcohol dehydrogenase and cytochrome P450.

Digestive Functions
f. Bile Production: The liver produces bile, which is essential for the emulsification and digestion of fats.
g. Bilirubin Processing: It processes bilirubin, a byproduct of red blood cell breakdown, for excretion in bile.

Storage Functions
h. Vitamin Storage: The liver stores vitamins A, D, E, K, and B12.
i. Mineral Storage: It stores minerals such as iron and copper.

Synthesis and Regulation
j. Hormone Production: The liver synthesizes and releases hormones like insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1).
k. Blood Clotting Regulation**: It produces clotting factors necessary for blood coagulation.
l. Immune Function: The liver contains Kupffer cells, which are part of the mononuclear phagocyte system and help in immune response.

Homeostasis
m. Blood Filtration: The liver filters the blood, removing old or damaged cells.
n. Regulation of Blood Volume: It helps regulate blood volume and pressure by storing and releasing blood.

Additional Functions
o. Heat Production: The liver generates heat through metabolic processes, contributing to thermoregulation.
p. Cholesterol Management: It regulates cholesterol levels by synthesizing and excreting cholesterol.
q. Conversion of Ammonia: The liver converts toxic ammonia to urea, which is then excreted by the kidneys.

Given this extensive list, the liver is the most multifunctional organs in the human body, if not the most multifunctional in all biology. Its ability to perform a wide array of complex and essential tasks underscores the remarkable efficiency and versatility of biological systems. The liver is a critical organ in the human body, performing a vast array of essential functions that are life essential for survival and overall health. Its roles span metabolism, detoxification, digestion, storage, synthesis, regulation, and homeostasis.  The liver's multifunctionality presents a formidable challenge to the concept of stepwise evolution. For an organ with such a broad range of essential functions to evolve gradually, intermediate forms must confer a selective advantage at each step. However, the liver's functions are deeply interdependent and integrated, making it difficult to envision how partial or incomplete forms of the liver could have provided sufficient survival benefits. Many of the liver's functions are life-essential and must operate in concert. For instance, detoxification processes are critical for survival, but they must be matched by efficient metabolic processes and storage capabilities. The simultaneous evolution of these functions would require a highly coordinated series of mutations, which seems statistically extremely improbable. The liver’s evolution cannot be viewed in isolation. Its functions are closely tied to other organs and systems, such as the digestive system (bile production for fat digestion), the endocrine system (hormone production and regulation), and the circulatory system (blood filtration and regulation). This interdependence implies that the evolution of the liver would necessitate concurrent evolutionary changes in these other systems, further complicating the evolutionary narrative. The concept of intermediate forms is crucial in evolutionary biology. For the liver, intermediate forms would need to retain partial functionality without compromising the organism's viability. However, given the liver's critical roles, it is challenging to identify what viable intermediate stages might look like. Partial detoxification or incomplete metabolic processes could be detrimental, reducing the likelihood of such forms being naturally selected. Given these complexities, the liver's multifunctionality and integration are more plausibly explained by intelligent design rather than undirected evolutionary processes. 

2. Mouth: Speech, breathing, chewing, and swallowing food.
The mouth serves not only as the organ for speech but also facilitates breathing, chewing, and swallowing food. The skin provides protection against pathogens and environmental hazards, regulates body temperature through sweating, facilitates sensation (touch, pressure, temperature, pain perception), and even synthesizes vitamin D in response to sunlight exposure.

3. Heart: Pumping blood to deliver oxygen and nutrients to tissues, regulating blood pressure, and endocrine function through the release of hormones like atrial natriuretic peptide.
The heart's functions are equally diverse. It pumps blood to deliver oxygen and nutrients to tissues, regulates blood pressure, and performs endocrine functions through the release of hormones like atrial natriuretic peptide. The lungs are involved in respiration (the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide), regulation of pH balance by removing carbon dioxide, and immune defense through the production of surfactants and immune cells.

4. Kidneys: Filtration of blood to remove waste products and excess substances (urine formation), regulation of blood pressure and electrolyte balance, and production of hormones like erythropoietin and renin.
Kidneys filter blood to remove waste products and excess substances (urine formation), regulate blood pressure and electrolyte balance, and produce hormones like erythropoietin and renin. The brain's capabilities are truly awe-inspiring, controlling voluntary and involuntary movements, processing sensory information (sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell), regulating emotions, thoughts, and behavior, and maintaining homeostasis (temperature, sleep-wake cycle, hunger, thirst).

5. Stomach: Digestion of food through the secretion of gastric juices containing digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid, and storage of ingested food before gradual release into the small intestine.
The stomach digests food through the secretion of gastric juices containing digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid and stores ingested food before gradual release into the small intestine. The intestines (small and large) absorb nutrients, water, and electrolytes from digested food, provide immune defense through gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), and facilitate the synthesis of vitamins by gut microbiota.

6. Endocrine Glands (e.g., adrenal glands, thyroid gland): Regulation of metabolism, growth, and development, response to stress through the secretion of hormones like cortisol and adrenaline, and regulation of calcium levels (parathyroid glands).
Endocrine glands like the adrenal glands and thyroid gland regulate metabolism, growth, and development, respond to stress through hormone secretion (e.g., cortisol, adrenaline), and regulate calcium levels (parathyroid glands). Muscles exhibit diverse functions, with skeletal muscles responsible for movement, maintenance of posture and body position, and generation of heat through shivering.

7. Brain: Control of voluntary and involuntary movements, processing sensory information (sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell), regulation of emotions, thoughts, and behavior, and maintenance of homeostasis (temperature, sleep-wake cycle, hunger, thirst).
The human brain presents a similar conundrum. Unparalleled in complexity and versatility, the brain not only regulates bodily functions but also enables thinking, reasoning, creativity, and emotional experience. Evolutionary explanations struggle to elucidate the emergence of such a sophisticated, multifaceted organ.  

8. Skin: Protection against pathogens and environmental hazards, regulation of body temperature through sweating, sensation (touch, pressure, temperature, pain perception), and synthesis of vitamin D in response to sunlight exposure.
The skin exhibits a similar breadth of functions. It protects against pathogens and environmental hazards, regulates body temperature through sweating, facilitates sensation (touch, pressure, temperature, pain perception), and even synthesizes vitamin D in response to sunlight exposure. The diverse roles of the skin pose challenges for stepwise evolutionary explanations.

9. Lungs: Respiration (exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide), regulation of pH balance by removing carbon dioxide, and immune defense through the production of surfactants and immune cells.
The lungs, too, defy simplistic evolutionary accounts with their multifaceted functions. They facilitate respiration (the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide), regulate pH balance by removing carbon dioxide, and provide immune defense through the production of surfactants and immune cells.

10. Pancreas: Endocrine function (production of insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar levels) and exocrine function (production of digestive enzymes for food digestion).
The pancreas exemplifies the multifunctionality present in many organs. It exhibits both endocrine functions, such as the production of insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar levels, and exocrine functions, including the production of digestive enzymes for food digestion.

11. Intestines (small and large): Absorption of nutrients, water, and electrolytes from digested food, immune defense through the presence of gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), and synthesis of vitamins by gut microbiota.
The intestines (small and large) further illustrate the complexity found in biological systems. They absorb nutrients, water, and electrolytes from digested food, provide immune defense through the presence of gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), and facilitate the synthesis of vitamins by gut microbiota.

12. Muscles: Movement (skeletal muscles), maintenance of posture and body position, and generation of heat through shivering (skeletal muscles).
Muscles, particularly skeletal muscles, exhibit a diverse array of functions. They facilitate movement, maintain posture and body position, and even generate heat through shivering.

13. The human eye, often cited as a marvel of evolution, exemplifies the challenge posed by multifunctionality. While evolutionary theory suggests the eye gradually evolved through small, incremental changes providing survival advantages, the eye is not merely a passive light receptor. It also facilitates depth perception, color vision, and emotional expression through tears. How could such a sophisticated, multifunctional system arise solely through random mutations and natural selection?

The Argument for Intelligent Design: An Inference to the Best Explanation

The argument presented in favor of intelligent design is based on an inference to the best explanation. It compares evolutionary explanations and intelligent design based on their ability to account for the observed complexity and multifunctionality of organs and structures, suggesting that intelligent design provides a more coherent and plausible explanation for these features, given the limitations of current evolutionary models. The argument is grounded in the observation that many human organs perform multiple, interdependent functions. The liver, for instance, not only processes nutrients but also detoxifies substances, produces bile, and stores vitamins. This multifunctionality makes it challenging to envisage a stepwise evolutionary process where each intermediate step offers a survival advantage. Furthermore, the concept of irreducible complexity suggests that certain biological systems cannot function if any part is removed, making it difficult to envision how they could evolve through gradual, successive changes. The argument posits that such systems are more plausibly the result of intelligent design, where all parts are simultaneously created to function together. 

The argument highlights several challenges to evolutionary explanations. First, evolutionary mechanisms, based on random mutations and natural selection, are typically gradual and incremental. Explaining how an organ could evolve multiple complex functions simultaneously poses a significant challenge, as each function would need to provide some survival advantage at each step, which is difficult to demonstrate for multifunctional organs. Second, the argument underscores the difficulty in identifying viable intermediate stages for organs performing multiple functions. For instance, how would a partially developed liver that only performs some of its functions confer a survival advantage? Third, natural selection favors traits that provide immediate and clear survival benefits. Multifunctionality requires a level of coordination and integration that is challenging to achieve through random mutations alone. In contrast, intelligent design offers an alternative explanation. It posits that an intelligent cause can foresee and integrate multiple functions into a single organ from the outset. This bypasses the need for gradual, stepwise development and allows for the simultaneous emergence of complex, interdependent functionalities. An intelligent designer could create organs and structures with all necessary parts and functions fully integrated, avoiding the pitfalls of partial, non-functional intermediates. Moreover, intelligent design can predict the presence of complex, multifunctional systems in living organisms, aligning well with the observed biological complexity. The argument for intelligent design, based on the irreducible complexity and multifunctionality of human organs, is an inference to the best explanation. It suggests that the simultaneous development of multiple, interdependent functions is better explained by an intelligent cause rather than by undirected evolutionary processes. This perspective is not rooted in incredulity or ignorance but in a reasoned comparison of competing explanations, favoring the one that most coherently accounts for the observed data.