Perguntas ....

The assembly Pathway of bacteriophages

Michael Rossmann, Purdue - T4 Bacteriophage Assembly
https://vimeo.com/10700469



















F.Arisaka (2005): Assembly of bacteriophage generally proceeds along a well-ordered pathway.  About 45 genes or gene products GP are involved in the assembly of the virion.  In order to assemble such a complex structure as T4, a number of intriguing “molecular devices” are employed. These “molecular devices” are considered to make the assembly efficient and free from errors. 

Scaffold processing and expansion
Head formation takes place on the inner membrane of the host E. coli. The initiation complex, made of twelve subunits of gp20, forms part of a neck or knob structure on which a scaffold of the head is formed. The main component of the scaffold is gp22, which is assumed to form a helix-rich ellipsoid of revolution together with minor components such as inner proteins I, II, III, and prohead protease gp21 or T4PPase. The major capsid protein gp23 forms the capsid, which is an icosahedron and elongated along the fivefold axis with T= 13 and Q= 20,6 where T is the triangulation number, which denotes the number of unit triangles in the p6 net, and Q is similar to the T number, but is related to the length of the elongated icosahedron. How the length of the head is determined is not yet fully understood, but the capsid formation starts as the scaffold formation is initiated and it is assumed to be determined by their interaction together with its intrinsic curvature. After the prohead is formed, most of the head proteins except for gp20 are processed or cleaved by T4PPase. T4PPase is specific for Glu residue, but appears to recognize higher order structure as well. The major capsid protein gp23 is cleaved between residue E65 and A66. The scaffold is cleaved into small peptides and is taken out of the prohead, making enough space for DNA packaging. As the processing of the prohead is completed, the prohead leaves the inner membrane and expansion takes place. It expands about 15%, accompanying the increase of the inner space by 50%. The expanded shell of the capsid is thinner but more rigid. The head is further strengthened by the accessory proteins, gp hoc highly immunogenic outer capsid and gp soc small outer capsid. Recently, the three-dimensional structure of gp24 was determined. Gp24 has a high homology to gp23 and forms pentamers at the vertices of the icosahedron, whereas gp23 forms hexamers on the surface. As the fold of gp23 would be similar, we can now predict the atomic structure of the whole head. Tail proteins are not processed with one exception, i.e., gp5 or tail lysozyme, where the peptide bond between Ser351 and Ala352 is cleaved by E. coli protease. This cleavage makes it possible for the lysozyme domain to be released from the rest of protein molecule during penetration of the tail tube 

HOST FACTORS ESSENTIAL FOR THE PHAGE ASSEMBLY 
As a virus by definition, phage T4 utilizes all the necessary bacterial organelles or protein complexes for its growth. Smaller phages are more dependent on their host functions than are larger phages. T4 phage is one of the largest phages and many functions are self-supplied, but it still requires a number of host factors. Such factors include the inner membrane of E. coli, where the initiation complex of the head is formed, RNA polymerase, ribosome, GroEL, etc. RNA polymerase is not encoded in T4, but the E. coli RNA polymerase undergoes some modifications by T4 proteins. Aside from the ADP-ribosylation of the  subunit of the holoenzyme, E. coli omega factor, 70, is replaced by T4-encoded omega factor gp55 to transcribe the late genes, which has a special consensus sequence of TATAAATA. In other words, the switch of transcription from early genes to late genes is accomplished by the replacement of the omega factor of RNA polymerase; from omega 70 to gp55. Most of the structural proteins for virion assembly are encoded in late genes. 19

Moh Lan Yap (2015): Bacteriophage T4 is classified as a member in the Myoviridae family of the Caudovirales order because it has a contractile tail. The head, the tail and the long tail fibers (LTFs) of T4 are assembled independently before they are joined together to produce a mature phage.The 168 kbp dsDNA genome of T4 is encapsidated in its head. A contractile tail is attached to a special portal vertex at one end of the head. A hexagonal baseplate is attached to the distal end of the contractile tail. Six long tail fibers  (LTFs) are attached to the periphery of the hexagonal baseplate. The LTFs are the sensors that can recognize receptor molecules on the host. There are six short tail fibers (STFs) folded beneath the baseplate that unfold upon host recognition. After unfolding these STFs bind irreversibly to the host cell, thereby increasing the efficiency of infection. The contractile tail improves the efficiency of infection by making it possible for the tail tube to penetrate the outer host cell membrane prior to the delivery of phage DNA into the host cell.


Assembly pathway of bacteriophage T4
The assembly of T4 can be divided into three independent subassemblies: the head, the tail and the long tail fibers. The tail binds to the head followed by attachment of the fibritin protein at the neck region. Six long tail fibers then attach to form a viable T4 virion. 18



Morphogenesis of the bacteriophage T4 virion. 
The overall assembly pathway can be divided into three independent stages: head, tail, and long tail fiber assembly. The chaperonines and catalytic proteins are indicated in brackets near the protein, or assembly step, that
requires the chaperonine. Known protein stoichiometries are given as subscripts. Crystal structures of structural proteins are shown as ribbon drawings. 16

Zhihong Zhang (2011):  Complex viruses are assembled from simple protein subunits by sequential and irreversible assembly. During genome packaging in bacteriophages, a powerful molecular motor assembles at the special portal vertex of an empty prohead to initiate packaging. The capsid expands after about 10%–25% of the genome is packaged. When the head is full, the motor cuts the concatemeric DNA and dissociates from the head. These viruses encode powerful machines to package their genomes tightly inside an icosahedral-shaped capsid “head.” Packaging requires precise orchestration of a series of steps: assembly of an empty prohead, concatemer cutting and attachment of the motor-DNA complex to the portal vertex, ATP-fueled DNA translocation until the head is full, DNA cutting to terminate packaging, detachment of the motor, and sealing of the packaged head by “neck” assembly. The virion consists of a head into which the genome is packaged, and a tail that delivers the genome into the bacterial cell. A capsid of precise dimensions is first assembled, often with a single type of protein subunit polymerizing around a protein scaffold

A capsid of precise dimensions is first assembled, often with a single type of protein subunit polymerizing around a protein scaffold. A cone-shaped dodecameric portal initiates assembly and remains at the special five-fold vertex of the isometric capsid (prehead), facilitating all subsequent transactions: DNA entry, tail attachment, and DNA ejection. The scaffold is removed, creating an empty space inside the capsid (prohead or procapsid) for encapsidating the viral genome.


A schematic of DNA packaging by sequential assembly and promiscuous assembly.
The major capsid protein assembles around a scaffolding core into a prehead. The core is removed by proteolysis to produce an empty unexpanded prohead
(A). The unexpanded prohead normally has a round shape, but in phage T4 it has angular geometry. The packaging motor–DNA complex docks on portal and initiates packaging. The prohead expands after about 10%–25% of the DNA is packaged
(B). After headful packaging, the motor cuts the concatemeric DNA and dissociates from the DNA-full head
(C). The neck proteins (gp13, gp14, and gp15) assemble on portal to seal off the DNA-full head and provide a platform for tail assembly
(D). The various colors of portal represent different conformational states. In promiscuous assembly, the packaging motor assembles on a partial head produced by ejection of packaged DNA
(E)  or a full head
(G), and refills the head with new fragments of DNA
([F] and [G]; new DNA fragments shown in red).

A packaging ATPase motor, also known as the “terminase,” recognizes and cuts the concatemeric viral DNA and docks at the narrow protruding end of the prohead portal, inserting the DNA end into the portal channel. The packaging machine thus assembled drives DNA translocation utilizing the free energy of ATP hydrolysis (Figure B above).

After filling the head (“headful” packaging), the motor cuts the DNA and dissociates from the DNA-full head (Figure C above). The neck and tail proteins assemble on the portal, completing the infectious virus assembly (Figure D above).

A fundamental feature of virus assembly is “sequential assembly” in which “simple” components assemble in a strict sequence to generate a complex nanomachine with unique biological properties. Each assembly step generates a new site or conformational state to which the next component binds with exquisite specificity, essentially irreversibly. A series of such steps, as documented by elegant studies in phage T4  and numerous other viruses, leads to rapid and high-fidelity assembly of a complex infectious virion. In phage T4, this process assembles virions approaching a theoretical infection efficiency of 1.

The sequence of steps in the head morphogenesis of phage T4, as well as in other phages and dsDNA viruses (e.g., herpes viruses), is as follows:

(i) assembly of the packaging motor on a nascent (unexpanded) empty prohead (Figure A)
(ii) expansion of the capsid after about 10%–25% of the genome is packaged (Figure B)
(iii) packaging until the head is full
(iv) cutting of DNA and dissociation of the motor (Figure C)
(v) assembly of neck proteins to seal the packaged heads (Figure D)

Conformational changes in the portal are reported to drive these sequential irreversible transitions (Figure above; different colors of portal represent different conformational states) 12

Overview of Major Steps in T4 Head Assembly

Andreas Kuhn (2022): T4 head assembly initiates at the cytoplasmic surface of the inner membrane of E. coli by the interaction of the gp20 portal protein with the membrane insertase YidC (Figure 1). 




Figure 1. Overview of the major steps in T4 phage head assembly.
(A,B) Assembly initiates via the formation of a protein core anchored to the E. coli inner membrane via the portal, and around which the major capsid protein concomitantly assembles. Only in the absence of gp23 can naked cores be observed.
(A) Electron microscopy of proheads produced by 21- mutants in vivo (upper, thin section) and in vitro (lower). White arrow indicates a central hole in proheads assembled in the absence of the prohead protease (adapted from van Driel, Traub and Showe [6]). (C,D) Proteolytic maturation involves cleavage and removal of scaffold/core proteins as well as the propeptides of the internal and shell proteins, release of the prohead from the inner membrane and semi-expansion of the shell.
(E,F) Packaging of the genome into the prohead occurs via the action of the main packaging proteins, TerS (gp16) and TerL (gp17).
(C,E). Electron microscopy of thin sections of wild-type T4-infected E. coli (reproduced from Black and Thomas [7]).
(F) Scheme of how DNA packaging in vivo is integrated with late transcription, and DNA replication (reproduced from Black and Peng [8]).
(G) Recombinant Δhoc phage particles after immuno-gold labelling with an anti-Hoc antibody (inset WT phage particle). The visualization of the “gold necklace” provided evidence that the portal structure contained fusion proteins (gp20-Hoc). Confirming the recombinant phenotype was important, as these particles had a central role in refuting the rotary portal packaging model (reproduced from Baumann, Mullaney and Black [9]).
(H) Cryo-electron micrograph of a T4 Alt mutant imaged after the eighth exposure of a dose series of 16.5 el/Å2 per exposure). The bubbles are generated from the internal proteins, which are inferred to be randomly positioned within the DNA, but excluded from a zone of about 100–110 Å directly under the outer shell (reproduced from Wu et al. [10]).

The resulting dodecameric ring structure forms the foundation onto which a protein-only structure, the “core”, forms and acts as a scaffold to direct the correct assembly of the prolate exterior shell. Concomitantly with core formation, or immediately after, hexagons of the major shell protein gp23 and pentagons of gp24 assemble around the core, leading to the formation of a “prohead”. The core contains the proteins gp21, gp22, gp67 and gp68, together with the internal proteins Alt, IP1, IPII and IPIII. Proheads undergo proteolytic maturation by gp21, detach from the membrane, and the capsid shell expands to its final symmetry. DNA is then packaged into the capsid via interactions of the terminase with the portal protein. Once packaging is completed, a neck structure composed of gp13 and gp14 assembles onto the portal, allowing the addition of the tail and tail fibers. These steps in T4 assembly are typically referred to individually (e.g., assembly, maturation, packaging), but it is important to recognize that each is interlinked. Hence, each step is somewhat dependent on the former and/or concomitant steps, but also part of the overall process. 20

Assembly of the capsid shell

Moh Lan Yap (2015): There are several stages in the assembly of the head (Figure below): prohead formation, prohead proteolysis, DNA packaging, expansion of the prolate head and binding of the Hoc and Soc accessory proteins. The T4 prohead starts to assemble with the formation of the membrane-bound initiation complex, which comprises the portal protein gp20 mediated by the chaperone protein gp40. The initiation complex first attaches to the inner side of the host cytoplasmic membrane followed by binding of the prohead core (scaffold) proteins gp21, gp22, gp67, gp68, the initiation proteins IPI, IPII, IPIII and gpalt. Subsequently, the capsid proteins gp23 and gp24 start to form a shell around the core proteins to assemble into a prohead. Both the core and shell assemble concurrently. The major capsid protein gp23 requires two chaperone proteins, the host-encoded GroEL and the phage-encoded gp31, for proper folding. A total of 930 copies of the gp23 and 55 copies of gp24 are needed for the assembly of the prohead. The volume of the prohead is approximately 15–20% smaller than that of the mature head. The gp21 is then self-cleaved and activated to become a protease (T4PPase) in the prohead. The amino terminal peptides of gp23, gp24, IPI, IPII, IPIII and gpalt are cleaved, whereas gp21, gp22, gp67 and gp68 are extensively digested into small peptide fragments. All digested peptide fragments except for peptide II and IV of gp67 and gp22, respectively, are then expelled from the prohead. The cleaved head is released from the membrane into the cytosol and the gp23* and probably gp24* proteins undergo a large conformational rearrangement resulting in the expansion of the prohead. During this process, the capsid’s facets are flattened and the wall of the capsid becomes thinner. The processed prohead is then released from the membrane for DNA packaging. 18



T4 head assembly
The dodecameric portal vertex acts as an initiator of head assembly. The major capsid protein assembles around a scaffolding core into a prohead. The core is removed by proteolysis to produce an empty unexpanded prohead. 
(A) The packaging machine-DNA complex docks on portal and initiates packaging. 
(B) The prohead expands after approximately 10–25% of the DNA is packaged. 
(C) When the head is full, the packaging machine cuts the DNA and dissociates from the head. 
(D) The neck proteins, gp13 and gp14, assemble on the portal to seal the DNA-full head. 
(E) The accessory proteins, Hoc and Soc, bind to the head. The head is ready to be joined to the tail.

CrevInfo: Virus: Like DNA in a Hard Plastic Shell (2004):  A European team of biophysicists studied the mechanical properties of a virus and found the shell, made of protein, to act like hard plastic.  Writing in PNAS,1 they described the coat of a bacteriophage they studied:

I. L. Ivanovska (2004): The protective proteinaceous shells (capsids) of viruses are striking examples of biological materials engineering.  These highly regular, self-assembled, nanometer-sized containers are minimalistic in design, but they combine complex passive and active functions. Besides chemical protection, they are involved in the selective packing and the injection of viral genetic material.
The capsids look like oblong, geometric shapes with pointy ends.  The DNA is packed inside under pressure, and the coat can withstand indentations of 30%.  “The measured Young’s modulus,” they found, “is comparable with that of hard plastic.”  They seemed to admire the little cases: the bacteriophage capsid is remarkably dynamic yet resilient and tough enough to easily withstand the known packing pressure of DNA (~60 atmospheres).  These capsids, thus, not only provide a chemical shield but also significant mechanical protection for their genetic contents.  Viral shells are a remarkable example of nature’s solution to a challenging materials engineering problem: they self-assemble to form strong shells of precisely defined geometry by using a minimum amount of different proteins. 10

The team is looking at these miniaturized packages for inspiration in the burgeoning field of nanotechnology. Here is observational evidence that leads to interesting questions.  It shows that living things need to overcome the same kinds of physics problems that engineers face.  Yet viruses are not, by definition, alive; they rely on a host for replication.  How could such precision bio-nanotechnology evolve?  Why do viruses exist?  Did they ever have a beneficial role, considering that the vast majority are harmless?  We may never be able to explain such things completely, but we can marvel at the biophysics capabilities found in nature, and deduce that such things don’t just happen.




https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dMvU6Eh4nlw


M.G. Rossmann (2011) How proteins and nucleic acids assemble, often spontaneously, into structurally well-defined three-dimensional objects is an intriguing question. The limited size of the phage genome and the multi-component composition of bacteriophages make them well suited for assembly investigations. Genetic manipulation of phages has made it easy to observe the effects of gene inactivation on protein-protein association, providing information on the sequence of assembly processes.





Large dsDNA bacteriophages, herpesviruses, adenoviruses and microviruses encode a powerful DNA-translocating machinenery that encapsidates a viral genome into a preassembled capsid or procapsid. The packaging machine is often composed of a portal structure, which provides a gate for DNA entry, and an ATP-driven motor. This motor is composed of the large subunit whose ATPase activity fuels DNA translocation, and most frequently, a small subunit that binds to the viral packaging site. DNA cleavage can be coupled to genome packaging.

Dong-Hua Chen (2010): Molecular Mechanism for Capsid Assembly, Scaffolding Protein Release, and Capsid Maturation:  To form a functional P22 procapsid, at least four types of proteins are required: coat, scaffolding, ejection, and portal proteins, in which the portal proteins form a unique 12-fold portal complex at a fivefold vertex. The lack of scaffolding proteins results in the failure to incorporate the portal and can lead to incomplete particles.
Based on our density maps, we propose that the formation of a unique portal complex with the requisite scaffolding and coat proteins is likely the key for initiating proper procapsid assembly



Pathway for capsid assembly, scaffolding protein release and capsid maturation.
(A and B) The portal (gray) associates with scaffolding (red) and coat (cyan) proteins to initiate procapsid assembly. The assembly continues with the addition of scaffolding and coat subunits to the growing shell 
(C) until the full procapsid is assembled 
(D). DNA is then packaged into the procapsid shell through the channel of the portal by the terminase motor. The scaffolding proteins are released by the electrostatic forces from DNA being packaged and exit through the central large openings of hexamers 
(E). During the release of scaffolding proteins, conformational changes associated with the maturation transition occur. After capsid expansion and DNA packaging, the tail hub, needle, and tail spikes are attached to the portal to form an infectious virion (magenta) 
(F). In B and C, the insets show the side views. In D and F, the insets show one hexamer and the adjacent pentamer rotated from the side view to the end-on view.

Scaffolding proteins may play a critical role during the capsid assembly nucleation because the portal would not be incorporated into the procapsid when the scaffolding proteins are absent. Once nucleated, procapsid assembly proceeds by the addition of scaffolding and coat subunits to the growing shell until the full procapsid is assembled with the proper size and shape as directed by the scaffolding proteins (Fig. 5 C and D). Coat proteins are likely added as monomers or dimers, with the mediation of scaffolding proteins, because our structures show that each scaffolding protein’s C-terminal helix-loop-helix motif interacts with the N arm of the corresponding coat protein. Though the exact timing is not known, ejection proteins are also incorporated and possibly interact with the scaffolding and portal proteins before procapsid assembly is completed. Once the capsid shell forms (Fig. 5D), DNA packaging can begin. In the early stages of DNA packaging, the terminase complex (gp2 and gp3) docks against the portal and hydrolyzes ATP to drive DNA into the procapsid shell through the portal.

Siyu Li ( 2018): More than 50 y ago, Caspar and Klug made the striking observation that the capsids of most spherical viruses display icosahedral order (IO), defined by 12 five-coordinated units (disclinations or pentamers) occupying the vertices of an icosahedron surrounded by hexameric units.  A nonspecific template not only selects the radius of the capsid, but also leads to the error-free assembly of protein subunits into capsids  with universal icosahedral order(IO). Under many circumstances, small icosahedral capsids assemble spontaneously around their genetic material. Larg double-stranded (ds) RNA or DNA viruses require what we generically denote as the template: scaffolding proteins (SPs) or an inner core. A “generic” template provides a robust path to self-assembly of large shells with IO. For large shells successful assembly into IO requires a nonspecific attractive interaction between protein subunits and a template. 8

Viruses: An Intelligent Design Perspective

“Our study shows that if a messy shell forms because of the high protein concentration or strong attractive interaction, then, as the shell grows larger, the cost of elastic energy becomes so high that several bonds can get broken, resulting in the disassembly and subsequent reassembly of a symmetric shell.”

The paper by Zandi’s team, published in ACS Nano, describes how the shells, even if disordered, can break apart and reassemble into symmetrical forms by physical forces like elastic energy. As the proteins attract,

the key for the disorder–order transition in both en masse and nucleation and growth pathways lies in the strength of elastic energy compared to the other forces in the system including protein–protein interactions and the chemical potential of free subunits. Our findings explain, at least in part, why perfect virions with icosahedral order form under different conditions including physiological ones.

Peter E. Prevelige (2011): Scaffolding proteins mediate, catalyze, and promote proper virus assembly. For many smaller viruses, all the information required for high fidelity assembly can be encoded, or self-contained, entirely in the coat protein subunits. However, larger viruses or small viruses frequently require additional proteins to insure robust assembly. Among those proteins are the “scaffolding” proteins, a class of auxiliary proteins that are present transiently during assembly and are not part of the final structure. Although common, scaffolding proteins are not ubiquitous. As coat proteins  (the capsid are called capsid proteins or viral coat proteins (VCP).) perform additional functions, efficient assembly may have become compromised. In some systems, best represented by the parvoviruses, maximal infectivity and/or fitness most likely requires constructing capsids with two or three-coat protein variants. The P = 3 picornavirus capsids represent a more complex example: capsids contain three unique coat proteins.  Most coat proteins will form aberrant capsid-like structures if left to their own devices. Therefore, a mechanism to ensure morphogenetic fidelity, vis-à-vis proper capsid size and shape formation is required, and this mechanism includes scaffolding proteins. There is a need to rapidly assemble capsids before cell death and/or programmed cell lysis. This contribution of this factor is most apparent with the microviruses, ostensibly simple viruses that accomplish an almost unimaginable fast replication cycle by employing two-scaffolding proteins.

Phage-encoded molecular chaperones 
F.Arisaka (2005): A molecular chaperone is a group of proteins which facilitate protein folding in the cell. GroE of E. coli was originally discovered as an essential host factor for the growth of phages. The name “GroE” stems from the fact that the growth of phage lambda requires a host factor and that the factor is required for the proper folding of the major capsid protein gpE. It was subsequently found that phage T4 also requires GroE for its growth and that groE consists of two genes: groEL and groES. Later, it was reported that they are heat shock proteins and molecular chaperones. GroEL, which is now known as Hsp60, together with GroES or Hsp10, is called chaperonin.  T4 phage requires GroEL for the folding of its major capsid protein gp23. The fact that T4 does not require GroES had been a mystery, but recent investigations have established that gp31 of phage T4 functions as GroES in the T4-infected cells. Gp31 forms a heptameric ring, as does GroES. The high-resolution structure of gp31 and GroES complexes revealed that their three-dimensional shapes are very similar, except that the former has an extra loop that made the “Anfinsen cage” of the GroEL/gp31 complex larger than that of GroEL/GroES. “Anfinsen cage” denotes a hole inside the chaperonin complex, where the intermediate folding protein is eventually completely folded. The reason that GroEL/gp31 is required but not the Gro EL/GroES system for gp23 folding is unknown, but recent investigation indicated that the GroEL/gp31 complex, but not GroEL/GroES, has the affinity to the folding intermediate of gp23, the major capsid protein. There are a number of other phage-encoded chaperone or chaperone-like proteins. Gp40 is known to be essential for head formation and is a membrane protein, but its precise function is not known. Gp57A is essential for the fiber formation of both long and short tail fibers. This is a small protein with 79 amino acid residues. It is a helix-rich fibrous protein and hexamer appears to be the main oligomer species, which reversibly dissociates into trimers and then monomers. The mechanism of chaperone function is not known. Gp38 is also essential for the fiber formation of the distal half-fibers. Gp51 has long been known to function catalytically for the formation of the hub of the baseplate. On the other hand, gp63 is known to facilitate the binding of tail fibers to the baseplate. In the absence of gp63, the tail fiber attachment is much slower, but the mechanism is not known. Gp63 has an RNA ligase activity, but that activity is not related to the tail attachment function.

E. Fibritin „whisker… and foldon, an internal molecular chaperone 
Another protein that also facilitates the binding of long tail fibers to the baseplate is a structural protein called “whiskers” or “fibritin.” They are trimeric fibrous protein with coiled-coil structure, and six of them stick out from the neck. They are not essential, but without them, the tail fiber attachment takes a much longer time. The distal end of the fibritin, the C-terminal domain, binds to the kink region of the long tail fiber i.e., the junction between the distal and proximal tail fibers and orients the fibers so that the proximal end of the tail fiber approaches the baseplate, which facilitates the binding of the tail fibers to the baseplate. The C-terminal domain, consisting of 27 amino acid residues, is essential for trimerization of the fibritin. It is called “foldon.” When the foldon part was cloned and overexpressed, it spontaneously formed a trimer.  Apparently, the foldon domain facilitates the alignment of the other part of the three polypeptide chains and functions as an internal chaperonin. The foldon has been fused to the C-termini of several other proteins including collagen peptides and has been shown to successfully make the homogeneous trimeric collagen helix. 19

Assembly of the baseplate

Moh Lan Yap (2016):  Bacteriophage T4 consists of a head for protecting its genome and a sheathed tail for inserting its genome into a host. The tail terminates with a multiprotein baseplate that changes its conformation from a “high-energy” dome-shaped to a “low-energy” star-shaped structure during infection. Although these two structures represent different minima in the total energy landscape of the baseplate assembly, as the dome-shaped structure readily changes to the star-shaped structure when the virus infects a host bacterium, the dome-shaped structure must have more energy than the star-shaped structure. This structure, together with other genetic and structural data, shows why the high-energy baseplate is formed in the presence of the central hub and how the baseplate changes to the low-energy structure, via two steps during infection. Thus, the presence of the central hub is required to initiate the assembly of metastable, high-energy structures. If the high-energy structure is formed and stabilized faster than the low-energy structure, there will be insufficient components to assemble the low-energy structure. Most bacteriophages have a tail. At the distal end of the tail there is usually a baseplate that is decorated by some fibers. The baseplate initiates infection when the tail fibers bind to a host cell. Signals are transmitted from the tail fibers via the baseplate to the tail that then trigger the ejection of the phage genome from the head into the host cell through the tail tube. Two evolutionary-related structures, of pyocin and of the type VI secretion system, are found in bacteria as defense systems to kill competing bacteria. These structures are remarkably similar to the tail baseplate structure of bacteriophages, suggesting that tail baseplate-like structures are effective organelles for infecting bacteria. T4 is a member of the Myoviridae family of bacteriophages. These phages have a sheath around the tail tube that contracts during infection (Figure below).


Schematic diagram of bacteriophage T4. 
Bacteriophage T4 has a contractile tail and a complex baseplate. Six long-tail fibers are attached to the upper part of the baseplate and six short-tail fibers are folded under the baseplate before infection. 

T4 has a complex baseplate that is essential for assuring a highly efficient infection mechanism. After recognition of an Escherichia coli host cell by some of the six long-tail fibers (LTF), the short-tail fibers (STF) that are a part of the baseplate, bind irreversibly to the cell. This process is accompanied by a large conformational change in the baseplate from a “high-energy” dome- to a “low-energy” star-shaped structure, although each of these structures represent an energy minimum in the energy landscape of the baseplate assembly. This change triggers contraction of the tail sheath, driving the tail tube into the outer host cell membrane and further across the periplasmic space to the inner membrane. The genomic DNA is then ejected into the host’s cytoplasm. Hence, the baseplate serves as the nerve center for transmitting signals from the tail fibers to the head for the release of DNA into the host.

The hexagonal dome-shaped T4 baseplate assembles from six wedges surrounding a central hub. A total of 134 protein subunits from 15 different proteins form the ∼6.5-MDa baseplate. The assembly of a wedge had been shown to follow a strictly ordered sequence. First, an initial complex is formed by a monomer of gp7 and a trimer of gp10, followed sequentially by binding of a dimer of gp8 and a dimer of gp6 to the complex. In the absence of a central hub, at least five proteins (gp7, gp10, gp8, gp6, and gp53) are required for assembly of wedges in vitro into a star-shaped, low-energy baseplate-like structure. Assembly of the high-energy, dome-shaped structure requires the presence of the central hub. However, how the sequential wedge assembly events are regulated remained unknown. In particular, the question remained how the high-energy dome-shaped baseplate could assemble.

How is it possible to assemble the high-energy dome-shaped baseplate initially as opposed to the low-energy star-shaped baseplate? After the individual wedges have assembled, six wedges assemble around the central hub to form the dome-shaped baseplate (Fig. 4B and Movie S2). The present structure has shown the complete structure of gp6, which when fitted into the cryo-EM density of the dome-shaped baseplate shows that gp6 binds tightly around the central hub protein gp27 (Fig. 5A).


Assembly of a baseplate based on present and earlier results. 
(A) Wedge assembly. Gp10, gp8, and gp6 bind sequentially to the gp7 backbone protein. The central hub of the baseplate is assembled independently. 
(B) Baseplate and tail assembly. Six wedges assemble around the central hub to form a baseplate. Gp53 binds adjacent wedges together. Subsequently, gp9 and the gp11–gp12 complex bind to the baseplate, further stabilizing the dome-shaped configuration. Then, gp48 and gp54 bind to the top of the central hub and initiate polymerization of the tail tube. Gp25 attaches to the gp48–gp54 complex, initiating polymerization of the tail sheath. For clarity, only three rings of the tail sheath are shown.

Thus, the nucleation of the baseplate assembly from individual wedges is dependent on the interaction of gp6 with gp27. However, in the star-shaped baseplate structure the tight ring of six gp6 dimers around gp27 has expanded and lost contacts with gp27. Thus, the initiation of baseplate assembly is the association of gp6 with gp27, from wedges that are probably assembled as in the dome-shaped baseplate. In the absence of gp27, as was the case for the in vitro-assembled baseplate reported here, gp6 can assemble only as a star-shaped baseplate. Thus, the route to the low-energy star-shaped wedge is via the initially assembled dome-shaped wedge.

Infection Mechanism.
Phage T4 uses the LTFs to recognize a LPS and/or OmpC receptor on the surface of the host cell. Because phages have been observed that have baseplates, which have changed to star-shaped structure, but that still have extended sheaths, presumably, the initial step of infection is the change of the dome-shaped structure to an intermediate structure in which the STFs are released. Subsequently, attachment of the STFs to cell-surface molecules triggers the baseplate to change its conformation to the final star shape, which in turn causes the sheath to contract and the tail tube to puncture the outer cell membrane. Thus, it is likely that the conformational changes of the baseplate occur in two steps—namely, first from the dome-shaped structure to an intermediate star-shaped structure and then from the intermediate structure to the final star-shaped structure.

The LTFs are attached to the baseplate via an adaptor protein gp9. The fit of the gp7 and gp9 structures into the 16-Å resolution cryo-EM density of the dome-shaped baseplate shows that domain III of gp7 interacts with density that represents the N-terminal part of gp9 (Movie S2). Thus, a flexible region of gp9 contacts gp7, allowing the LTFs to have multiple conformations in solution. When the LTFs attach to the cell, the Brownian motion of the phage particle may cause these flexible regions (31) to pull on domain III of gp7. This domain has extensive interactions with the gp8 dimer in the adjacent wedge, and with the C-terminal domain IV of gp10 in the same wedge. The rigid gp8 dimer in turn interacts extensively with the C-terminal domain VI of gp7, which is attached to the N-terminal domain I of gp10. Therefore, the interaction of gp9 with domain III of gp7 is likely to disturb interactions among gp7, gp8, and gp10 at the vertices of the dome-shaped baseplate and trigger the periphery of the baseplate to change to a star-shaped conformation (Movie S3). As a result, the STFs attached to gp10 might unfold from the baseplate and point toward the cell surface with their C-terminal domain, whereas the N-terminal part of the STFs remain attached to domain II of gp10, after release of gp11 (Fig. 6). During the conformational change from dome-shaped to a star-shaped intermediate structure, the gp11 molecules, attached to domain III of the gp10 molecules, move closer to the phage head and push on the end of the LTFs close to the baseplate. The interaction of gp11 with the LTFs probably causes the parts of the LTFs closest to the baseplate to rotate with respect to the baseplate as seen in the star-shaped baseplate. Thus, LTFs attached to the cell surface are used as levers to bring the phage closer to the cell surface. On completion of these movements, the baseplate will have the structure of the intermediate state that has a star-shaped periphery (gp7, gp8, gp9, gp10, gp11, and gp12), although the inner ring of gp6-gp53-gp25 molecules probably remains attached to the hub (Fig. 6).

Assembly of the tail 


Assembly of the tail. Rows A, B and C show the assembly of the wedge; the baseplate and the tail tube with the sheath, respectively.

M. G. Rossmann et.al (2010): The fully assembled baseplate is a prerequisite for the assembly of the tail tube and the sheath both of which polymerize into the extended structure using the baseplate as the assembly nucleus (Figure 2). The baseplate is comprised of about 140 polypeptide chains of at least 16 proteins. Two gene products, gp51 and gp57A, are required for assembly, but are not present in the final particle. The baseplate has sixfold symmetry and is assembled from 6 wedges and the central hub. The only known enzyme associated with the phage particle, the T4 tail lysozyme, is a baseplate component. It is encoded by gene 5 (gp5). 17


1. http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2015/150706/ncomms8548/full/ncomms8548.html
full text pdf: http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2015/150706/ncomms8548/pdf/ncomms8548.pdf
2. Amy D. Migliori: Evidence for an electrostatic mechanism of force generation by the bacteriophage T4 DNA packaging motor 17 June 2014
3. http://mmbr.asm.org/content/75/3/423.full.pdf
4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1208326/
5. http://www.uncommondescent.com/intelligent-design/in-other-words-phylogenetic-reconstruction-is-sheer-fantasy/
6. http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2014/jun/25/relaxation-and-repulsion-helps-viruses-pack-dna
7. Dong-Hua Chen: Structural basis for scaffolding-mediated assembly and maturation of a dsDNA virus October 22, 2010
8.Siyu Li: Why large icosahedral viruses need scaffolding proteins October 9, 2018
9. Peter E. Prevelige: Building the Machines: Scaffolding Protein Functions During Bacteriophage Morphogenesis  01 January 2011
10. I. L. Ivanovska: Bacteriophage capsids: Tough nanoshells with complex elastic properties May 7, 2004
11. Lei Sun et al.,: Cryo-EM structure of the bacteriophage T4 portal protein assembly at near-atomic resolution 06 July 2015
12. Zhihong Zhang: A Promiscuous DNA Packaging Machine from Bacteriophage T4 2011 Feb 15
13. John E. Johnson:  The Structure of an Infectious P22 Virion Shows the Signal for Headful DNA Packaging (2006)
14. Peter E. Prevelige: Building the Machines: Scaffolding Protein Functions During Bacteriophage Morphogenesis  01 January 2011
15. Moh Lan Yap: Role of bacteriophage T4 baseplate in regulating assembly and infection February 29, 2016
16. M. G. Rossmann et.al: Structure and morphogenesis of bacteriophage T4 November 2003
17. M. G. Rossmann et.al: Morphogenesis of the T4 tail and tail fibers 03 December 2010
18. Moh Lan Yap: Structure and function of bacteriophage T4  2015 Aug 1
19. Fumio Arisaka: Assembly and infection process of bacteriophage T4 03 November 2005
20. Andreas Kuhn: The Beauty of Bacteriophage T4 Research: Lindsay W. Black and the T4 Head Assembly 28 March 2022

The amazing bacteriophage DNA packaging motor

Purdue (2220): In december 2000, Scientists solved the three-dimensional structure of the central component of a biological "motor" that powers the DNA packaging system in a virus, providing scientists with their first glimpse of such a motor system. The study describes atom-by-atom how the core of the tiny motor, just millionths of a millimeter in size, is constructed and suggests how it works to translocate, or pack, long stretches of the virus' genetic material into its outer shell during the process of viral replication. "Though other motor systems have been studied in biology, this is the first motor known to translocate genetic material."Viruses are essentially a simple parasite consisting only of an envelope that contains the genetic material ready for transportation from one host to another. They can reproduce only after infecting a host cell. Once inside a cell, the virus manipulates the cell's machinery to produce all the necessary components, including genetic material, to assemble new viruses. It is here that the biological motor is needed to fill newly assembled envelopes with their genetic material The new viruses are then released from the host cell and are free to infect other cells. The DNA packaging motor is comprised of three primary parts: an elongated prohead that serves as the virus shell a doughnut-shaped connector that is positioned at the entrance to the virus shell and feeds DNA into the shell a novel ribonucleic acid (RNA)-enzyme complex that converts chemical energy to mechanical energy needed for packaging. The connector is made up of 12 protein subunits that may serve as "cylinders" in the motor system to pull long chains of DNA through the center of the doughnut-shaped system. Five identical enzymes, called ATPases, are positioned around the connector, just outside the opening in the virus shell. The enzymes break down the cell's chemical fuel, called ATP, to produce the energy needed to power the motor. Successive chemical reactions produced by the ATP cause the phi29 connector to oscillate and rotate, pulling the DNA into the shell two base pairs at a time."Our results suggest that the prohead and connector comprise a rotary motor, with the head and ATPase complex acting as a stator and the DNA acting as a spindle.  5

CrevInfo: Handy Motor Found in Virus (2008): Your job today is to stuff a delicate chain into a barrel without breaking it and make it wrap neatly inside.  A tiny virus does this with helping hands.  A research team uncovered the mechanism of a “powerful molecular motor” that crams the viral DNA tightly into the capsid with the help of five moving parts. These are not real hands, of course; the captioned artist rendering whimsically shows five gp17 protein structures drawn to look like hands. These structures are protein subdomains embedded in the ring-shaped motor mechanism.  The capsid, or viral container, acts like a hard plastic shell, protecting the DNA inside.  Two rings on the opening hold the motor in place.  The gp17 subdomains take turns grasping the DNA and shoving it in.  Another analogy is that they work like pistons operating in sequence.  Using ATP energy pellets, they take advantage of electrostatic forces to gently but firmly transfer the DNA strand into the interior, where it coils in an orderly fashion.  The mechanism generates 20 times the force used by myosin, the motor in muscle.  The article claims that proportional to its size, the motor is twice as powerful as an automotive engine. The virus they studied is a bacteriophage – a virus that infects and destroys bacteria.  The cutaway diagram of the capsid shows the DNA wound neatly into a fabric-like pattern. 

Even viruses, which are not even alive by the definition of being able to reproduce independently, show incredible design.  They are too well designed to be accidents.  Why do so many viruses cause disease and death?  Actually, only a small fraction are harmful; most cause no harm and some are beneficial. Some creationists speculate that they all had a beneficial function originally: keeping bacteria in check or delivering genetic instructions to animals encountering a new environment.  After the Fall, they either were allowed to mutate into machines gone wild, turning on their customers or were recast as agents of judgment on a world sentenced to death and hardship.  Can they prove this?  No; but what is the alternative?  First, they have to believe in miracles – that super-efficient, compact, powerful motors like this just appeared, arose or emerged (favorite Darwinian miracle-words) from nowhere.  Second, they have to deny that anything is evil or out of order.  In Darwin’s world, whatever is, is right.  A logical consequence is that it is vain to seek cures for disease.  So what if millions of humans die in a pandemic?  It just shows that viruses are more fit. If miracles and apathy don’t motivate you to swallow the evolutionary line, then look at the mechanism from a design perspective and figure out what it’s there for.  Basic research can reveal the mechanism.  Philosophy and theology can elucidate their purpose.  Engineering can look for applications.  Who needs Darwin, the guy who sits around telling miracle stories? The Purdue team obviously didn’t act like “nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.”  They had no need for that hypothesis.  The E-word failed to materialize in the press release or any of the writeups on other sites.  “Viruses, start your engines!” EurekAlert began its version.  “Researchers find what drives one of nature’s powerful, nanoscale motors.” If design is what you observe, then design will lead to the right explanation, which may lie outside the capabilities of science. 3


This motor is made of two ringlike structures, and both of these discs contain five segments made of a protein called gp17. The image shows a cross-section of the virus head, or capsid, and an artist's interpretation of the motor as it packages DNA into the virus. The hands represent the five segments of the ringlike structures. Each hand takes a turn grabbing the DNA and moving it into the head until the head is full.

Purdue (2008):  Researchers have discovered the atomic structure of a powerful "molecular motor" that packages DNA into the head segment of some viruses during their assembly, an essential step in their ability to multiply and infect new host organisms. Researchers, from Purdue University and The Catholic University of America, also have proposed a mechanism for how the motor works. Parts of the motor move in sequence like the pistons in a car's engine, progressively drawing the genetic material into the virus's head or capsid, said Michael Rossmann, Purdue's Hanley Distinguished Professor of Biological Sciences. The motor is needed to insert DNA into the capsid of the T4 virus, which is called a bacteriophage because it infects bacteria. The same kind of motor, however, also is likely present in other viruses, including the human herpes virus. This particular motor is very fast and powerful. The T4 molecular motor is the strongest yet discovered in viruses and proportionately twice as powerful as an automotive engine. The motors generate 20 times the force produced by the protein myosin, one of the two proteins responsible for the contraction and strength of muscles. The virus consists of a head and tail portion. The DNA-packaging motor is located in the same place where the tail eventually connects to the head. Most of the motor falls off after the packaging step is completed, allowing the tail to attach to the capsid. The DNA is a complete record of a virus's properties, and the capsid protects this record from damage and ensures that the virus can reproduce by infecting a host organism. The packaging motor is made of two ringlike structures, and both of these discs contain five segments made of a protein called gp17, for gene product 17.  One disc sits on top of the other, and each of the five segments of the top disc shares a gp17 protein with a corresponding segment in the bottom disc. The gp17 proteins have two segments, or domains, one segment in the lower disc and the other segment in the upper disc. The lower disc first attaches to the DNA and is then drawn upward by the upper disc, pushing the DNA into the virus's capsid in the process. The top disc of the motor pulls the lower disc upward using electrostatic forces generated between oppositely charged objects. The motor is dynamic and apparently exists in two states: relaxed and tensed, the latter likely occurring when the top disk has attracted the lower disc. 6

M. G. Rossmann (2008): Nucleases are essential for DNA processing, such as replication and repair. Incorrect or ill-timed cutting can lead to genome instability and loss of viability of virus, cell or organism. In most tailed bacteriophages and herpes viruses, the product of viral genome replication is a concatemer, a branched head to tail polymer of the viral genome. Phage ‘terminase’, a hetero-oligomeric complex of small and large terminase subunits, recognizes the viral genome, makes an endonucleolytic cut, and links the end of the genome to an empty prohead by docking at the special portal vertex.


The gp17 C-terminal domain has nuclease active site.
A. Schematic of phage T4 DNA packaging motor showing the large terminase protein, gp17, bound to the special dodecameric portal vertex (gp20, violet) of the prohead. gp17 consists of an N-terminal ATPase domain (aa 1–360, blue) and a C-terminal endonuclease domain (aa 361–610, yellow).
B. The nuclease domain of 16 T4-family phage large terminase proteins contains a highly conserved Asp (purple) previously shown to be essential for in vivo DNA cleavage. Combinatorial mutagenesis identified that E404 (blue), G405 (green) and D409 (orange) are critical for function, and also conserved among the T4-family terminases.
C. The in vivo nuclease of gp17 mutants. The plasmid DNA was isolated at 0, 60 and 120 min after IPTG induction. Lane M shows λ-HindIII size standards. See Experimental procedures for more details.

The packaging motor, powered by an ATPase present in the large terminase protein, translocates DNA into the prohead. When the head has been filled with one (cos phages) or slightly more than one (pac phages) genome, the DNA is cut again and the filled head is disengaged from the terminase. The mechanism by which the ‘headful’ nuclease catalyses DNA cleavage is poorly understood for any phage system. 8

Purdue (2007): The ATPase enzyme provides energy to run the motor needed to insert DNA into the capsid, or head, of the T4 virus. "The virus first assembles the protein shell of the head and then packages the DNA into this empty capsid," Rossmann said. "This process could be likened to building a house and then filling it with furniture." The DNA is a complete record of a virus' properties, and the capsid protects this record from damage and ensures that the virus can reproduce by infecting a host organism. Energy to run the packaging motor is produced when the ATPase enzyme uses ATP. This release of energy is used to run the molecular motor in the T4 virus. The DNA-packaging motor is located in the same place where the tail eventually connects to the head. The motor falls off after the packaging step is completed, allowing the tail to attach to the capsid. DNA is made of four different kinds of "nucleotides" identified by a specific "base." The bases are paired together to form the rungs of a ladderlike, double-stranded helical structure. Because there is a negative charge associated with each nucleotide, they repel each other when compressed together, creating a pressure inside the confining space of the capsid. A motor is needed to counteract this pressure, in effect pumping the DNA into the head. The authors of the research paper have proposed a mechanism for how the motor works by comparing its structure to those of other, similar enzymes called helicases. The helicases are needed to separate double-stranded DNA into single strands during gene replication. Helicases alternatively bind to and release their grip on DNA during replication, progressively moving along the helix to separate the strands in a motion similar to an inchworm's movement. The authors proposed that the motor uses a similar inchworm mechanism to package the DNA into the virus. "While the helicases use the mechanism to unwind double-stranded DNA, this ATPase uses the mechanism to pump genetic material into the virus capsid," Sun said. 8

CrevInfo: We Are Filled with Viruses (2011):  Viruses have a bad connotation.  We immediately think of the ones that cause disease: “I’ve got a virus,” you say when feeling under the weather.  Actually, you have trillions of them all the time, even in the best of health.  A single gram of stool sample can have 10 billion of them! What does that mean?  Scientists are only beginning to find out. In the past decade, scientists have come to appreciate the vast bacterial world inside the human body.  They have learned that it plays a role in regulating the energy we take in from food, primes the immune system, and performs a variety of other functions that help maintain our health.  Now, researchers are gaining similar respect for the viruses we carry around. Bacteria have been easier to count than the tiny viruses.  Many of our internal viruses are bacteriophages that invade and kill bacteria.  This suggests they play a role in keeping the brakes on bacterial infections. For every bacterium in our body, there are probably 100 phages.  The number of virus species identified in stool samples of healthy adults varied from 52 to 2773.  But people who eat the same foods tend to converge on virus profiles.   We are full of viruses, in other words, but we don’t know what they all do.  This is “a true frontier” of research, with much to learn. “Ultimately, those viruses are incredibly important in driving what’s going on. It’s always been intriguing that viruses look incredibly well designed. Some bacteriophages look like lunar landing capsules, legs and all. 2

Zhihong Zhang (2011): The phage T4 packaging motor is the fastest and most powerful reported to date. It generates ∼60 pN of force and packages at a rate of up to ∼2,000 bp/s. The motor is composed of a large terminase protein, gp17, and a small terminase protein, gp16. gp17 contains all the enzymatic activities necessary for DNA packaging: ATPase, nuclease, and translocase. Five molecules of gp17 assemble on the portal, forming a pentameric motor with a central translocation channel that is continuous with the portal channel. gp16, a putative 11-mer, regulates gp17′s activities. Structural and biochemical studies suggest that packaging is driven by the electrostatic force generated by the motor alternating between relaxed and tensed conformational states. 

gp17 contains all the enzymatic activities necessary for DNA packaging: ATPase, nuclease, and translocase 

The large packaging subunit gp17 but not the small subunit gp16 exhibited an ATPase activity. 2 Although gp16 lacked ATPase activity, it enhanced the gp17-associated ATPase activity by >50-fold. The gp16 enhancement was specific and was due to an increased catalytic rate for ATP hydrolysis. A phosphorylated gp17 was demonstrated under conditions of low catalytic rates but not under high catalytic rates in the presence of gp16. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that a weak ATPase is transformed into a translocating ATPase of high catalytic capacity after the assembly of the packaging machine. The nonstructural terminase complex, constituted by one small subunit and one large subunit, is a key component of the DNA-packaging machine 12

So both subunits are required for the proper functioning of the molecular motor. These subunits do not have any use unless duly embedded in the nanomotor. An irreducibly complex system must have at least two subunits, that could not have emerged through evolutionary steps. This seems to be the case in this nanomotor as well. Further evidence is the fact that no protein homology exists between different Phages, which is another indication that they are designed and created separately. 

The genome-packaging machine

Moh Lan Yap (2015): The genome-packaging machine consists of three components: the dodecameric portal protein gp20, the pentameric large terminase gp17 and the small terminase gp16 (Figure below).


Structure of the phage T4 DNA-packaging machine
(A) A model of B-form polyA-polyT DNA molecule is shown bound to the T4 gp17 large terminase in the packaging mode. The N-terminal subdomain I is shown in green, the subdomain II is shown in yellow and the C-terminal domain is shown in cyan. The dashed box indicates potential interactions between the gp17 molecule and the DNA.
(B) Structure of the dodecameric SPP1 portal (red) (based on the crystal structure of the 13-mer) and crystal structure of T4 gp17 were fitted into the T4 procapsid-gp17 complex cryo-electron microscopy density.

The external shape of the dodecameric portal protein assembly has a cylindrically shaped structure with the wider end inside the capsid, whereas the narrower end protrudes out of the capsid creating an attachment platform for the packaging motor (Figure B). The gp20 may act as a valve to stop the packaged DNA from escaping the head during successive strokes of the packaging motor and also serves as a sensor when a headful of genome is packaged. The atomic structures of the portal proteins of phages ϕ29, SPP1 and P22 have been determined. These portal proteins have less than 20% sequence identity, but are similar in their overall shape and structure.

The large terminase gp17 consists of two functional domains, the N-terminal ATPase domain and the C-terminal nuclease domain, connected by a flexible linker (Figure A). The ATPase domain consists of the classic nucleotide binding fold, the functional motifs such as Walker A, Walker B and catalytic carboxylate found in most ATP-driven macromolecular motors. There are two DNA-binding grooves on opposite sides of the C-terminal nuclease domain. One of these sites functions to cleave the concatenated DNA molecule to create an end for initiating packaging and again after packaging has been completed. The other binding site is most probably used to bind the DNA during DNA translocation into the head. A flexible peptide linker between the N-terminal ATPase domain and the C-terminal nuclease domain is essential for DNA translocation. Five copies of gp17 assemble into a packaging motor on the protruding ‘stalk’ of the dodecameric portal, thus creating a symmetry mismatch between the portal and the motor.

The small terminase, gp16, is involved in initiating genome packaging and regulating the gp17 functions. In phages such as lambda and SPP1, the small terminase binds to a specific sequence (cos and pac sites, respectively) and brings it to the large terminase for initial cleavage to start the packaging mechanism. However, there are no unique cos and pac sequences in the T4 genome. Thus, gp16 may bind weakly to nonspecific DNA sequences to initiate DNA packaging. The functional oligomeric state of T4 gp16 is uncertain as the crystal structures of the small terminases vary from eight to 12 among three different phages (Sf6, SF6 and 44RR). Nevertheless, the domain organization of the small terminases is conserved and consists of an N-terminal DNA-binding domain, a central oligomerization domain, and a C-terminal large terminase-binding domain. The central oligomerization domain forms a ring-shaped structure. The N-terminal domains fold into a helix-turn-helix structure located around the periphery of the ring, whereas the C-terminal domains form a crown over the end of the ring assembly. Crystal structures, biochemical analyses and mutational studies suggest that the DNA wraps around the small terminase assembly. 18

Derek N. Fuller (2007): A complex is formed between the empty prohead and the large terminase protein (gp17) that can capture and begin packaging a target DNA molecule within a few seconds, thus demonstrating a distinct viral assembly pathway. The motor generates forces >60 pN, similar to those measured with phage φ29, suggesting that high force generation is a common property of viral DNA packaging motors. However, the DNA translocation rate for T4 was strikingly higher than that for φ29, averaging ≈700 bp/s and ranging up to ≈2,000 bp/s, consistent with packaging by phage T4 of an enormous, 171-kb genome in <10 min during viral infection and implying high ATP turnover rates of >300 s−1. The motor velocity decreased with applied load but averaged 320 bp/s at 45 pN, indicating very high power generation. Interestingly, the motor also exhibited large dynamic changes in velocity, suggesting that it can assume multiple active conformational states gearing different translocation rates. This capability, in addition to the reversible pausing and slipping capabilities that were observed, may allow phage T4 to coordinate DNA packaging with other ongoing processes, including viral DNA transcription, recombination, and repair.

A critical step in the assembly of many viruses is the packaging of the viral genome into a preassembled prohead shell by the action of an ATP-powered molecular motor. Viral DNA packaging complexes constitute a wide and potentially diverse family of molecular motors that are considerably understudied compared with cellular molecular motors such as myosins, kinesins, and helicases.

In a typical phage assembly pathway, a prohead shell of precise dimensions co-assembles with a scaffolding core. One of the vertices of the prohead is unique, containing a dodecameric portal ring structure. When the scaffolding leaves, a defined space is created inside the capsid. A packaging ATPase complex then docks onto the outer end of the portal, inserting one end of the viral genome into the 3.5- to 4-nm channel, and translocates the DNA by using ATP hydrolysis energy. After genome packaging, the ATPase dissociates, leaving the portal with the head, the outer surface of which provides a platform for the assembly of tail components. When the virus infects a cell, the densely packed DNA exits rapidly through the portal channel and tail tube into the host. 13

Venigalla B. Rao (2008): During large dsDNA virus assembly, viral DNA is translocated into preformed protein shells. The DNA packaging process compacts the highly negatively charged DNA to a density similar to that of crystalline DNA. DNA packaging is not spontaneous; rather, the DNA is driven into the shell by a translocating motor powered by ATP hydrolysis (Figure 1).


Components of the Phage DNA packaging machine. 
(a) Left: Prohead I of HK97. Right: A pentameric model of the T4 gp17 translocation ATPase domain. ATP is shown in red. Center: Schematic showing the packaging complex of a prohead (blue) with terminase ( green) docked on the portal ( yellow). DNA: red lines. 
(b) Left: CryoEM image of the ϕ29 portal, side view. Right: Functional map of the small (gpNu1) and large (gpA) subunits of phage λ terminase. gpNu1: HTH and W indicate the winged helix-turn-helix motif, and the segment marked gpA is the functional domain for interaction with the N terminus of gpA. gpNu1 segments involved in dimerization and oligomerization are indicated. Not shown is a low-affinity ATPase center in gpNu1 near the wing motif. gpA: The N-terminal 60% of the protein contains the translocation ATPase. ATPase motifs: YQ, adenine binding motif; A, B, C, the Walker A and B sequences and the coupling motif, respectively. At the N and C termini are functional domains for interacting with gpNu1 and the portal protein, respectively. The C-terminal domain contains the cohesive end-generating endonuclease, which includes a putative Walker A segment (A) and a basic leucine zipper (bZip).

The preformed empty shell is an icosahedron formed by many copies of the major capsid protein. One of the shell’s 12 fivefold vertices is a special portal vertex formed by the dodecameric portal protein. During translocation, a viral enzyme, called terminase, is docked on the portal and the DNA is translocated through the portal channel. 

DNA PACKAGING AND VIRUS ASSEMBLY: AN OVERVIEW 
Chromosome The virion DNAs of the tailed bacteriophages, adeno-, herpes-, and pox-viruses are linear dsDNA molecules. The chromosomes of many tailed phages, e.g., the λ-like and P2/P4-like phages, have complementary cohesive ends, which anneal to cyclize the DNA upon injection into a host cell. The DNA packaging recognition site, cos, includes the cohesive end sequence. Virion genomes are generated from concatemers during packaging when terminase introduces staggered nicks at cos sites to regenerate the cohesive ends (Figure 2a).


DNA processing by tailed dsDNA phages. 
(a) Top: Packaging-dependent concatemer processing by cos-containing phages (e.g., λ-like phages). Middle: Concatemer processing by pac-containing phages (e.g., P22, SPP1). Bottom: Protein-primed monomeric DNA replication and packaging by a strand displacement mechanism (ϕ29-like phages, adenoviruses) 
(b) i: Front and top views of SPP1 13-fold and ϕ29 12-fold portal structures. ii: A single subunit of the SPP1 and ϕ29 portal rings is colored green and magenta, respectively. ii: Left: A single SPP1 portal subunit showing subdomains and the conserved core structure ( green). Right: A single ϕ29 portal subunit showing the conserved structure (magenta). Center: Superimposition of the core structures shows striking structural conservation despite negligible sequence identity.  
(c) Top: CryoEM image of phage P22–cross section. Shell, blue; the portal protein, gp1, red; gp4, mauve; and DNA, green. The remaining structures are internal proteins and tail components. Bottom: P22 virion cryoEM image with head shell in blue and tail components in yellow.

The chromosomes of other tailed phages are terminally redundant, permitting cyclization by homologous recombination (e.g., phages P22 and SPP1), or end-to-end recombination to form concatemers (e.g., phages T4 and T7). Processing is initiated when terminase binds to the pacrecognition site on the concatemer and makes the initiating cut at a nearby sequence. Terminase remains bound to the newly created chromosome end, captures a prohead, and translocation of DNA into the prohead ensues. Head filling triggers terminase to make a second, nonspecific cut, which produces a terminally redundant virion DNA. The latter is due to a strict linkage between capsid size and genome length, the capsid volume accommodating little over a unit length genome (102%–110%). Packaging is processive so that the next chromosomes cut from the concatemer are likewise terminally redundant and circularly permuted (Figure 2a). Phage T4 DNA processing is similar to that of P22 and SPP1, except that the initial cuts are not necessarily made near to or at a unique pac site. 

Terminase 
Phage terminases are DNA packaging enzymes that contain the ATPase activity that powers DNA translocation. Most terminases also contain the endonuclease that, during DNA packaging, cuts concatemeric DNA into genome lengths. Terminases must also recognize viral DNA in a pool that may also include host DNA. Terminases generally are hetero-oligomers of a small protein involved in DNA recognition, and a large protein containing the translocation ATPase, the endonuclease, and a motif for docking at the portal vertex. Phage ϕ29 is unusual in several respects. First, DNA replication is protein-primed by gp3, which is covalently joined to the viral DNA. Second, gp3 is a necessary component of the DNA packaging machinery and is analogous to the small terminase protein of other phages. The large terminase protein equivalent is gp16, which possesses the packaging ATPase activity. Third, ϕ29’s prohead contains a small 174-nt packaging RNA (pRNA). 

DNA Packaging 
To initiate DNA packaging, the small terminase subunit binds specifically to concatemeric DNA. The binding site is near the site of DNA cutting; for example, the P22 small subunit, gp3, binds to a 17-bp pac site located within the 3 gene, and the gp2 large subunit cuts the DNA at various sites in a 120-bp segment near pac. Following the initial DNA cut, terminase remains bound to the DNA end in a gp2-gp3-DNA complex that then docks on the prohead’s portal vertex.  Major structural changes are expected to occur during these transitions. For example, cohesive ends like those of λ must be separated after being created through the introduction of staggered nicks by terminase. Separating the cohesive ends may also involve the driving apart of terminase protomers. Similarly, docking of the terminase-DNA complex onto the portal protein requires structural changes to activate the translocation ATPase.

Rotary Motors 
Nut and bolt model. In 1978 it was proposed that the portal is not merely a passive conduit for DNA entry and exit but an active packaging machine, a rotary motor that transports DNA into the capsid (67) (Figure 5a). The basic features of the model are: 

(i ) The symmetry mismatch between fivefold icosahedral capsid and sixfold portal vertex allows portal rotation imposing minimal energy barriers; 
(ii ) the portal channel must be threaded to match the DNA structure, analogous to a nut that rotates on a bolt; 
(iii ) directional rotary motion of portal (nut) causes linear motion of DNA (bolt) into the capsid; and (iv) ATP hydrolysis powers directional rotation; 30 equivalent positions are expected where a rotating portal subunit comes into registry with a capsid subunit, triggering ATP hydrolysis. 

The free energy of hydrolysis drives portal rotation through one to several of these equivalent positions, coupling it to translocation of a proportional number of base pairs. This could be tailored, or regulated, to generate different gearing ratios.


Portal rotation models.

DNA is metabolically dynamic, as the center of transcription, recombination, replication, repair, partition, translocation, and so on. These processes require motor proteins, including polymerases, nucleases, helicases, and translocases. Translocases that transport DNA include ATPases that move DNA in the cells, like FtsK and SpoIIIE. Viral DNA translocases move viral genomes into shells during virus assembly. Viral dsDNA translocation is coordinated with the processing of concatemeric DNA to produce unit-length virion chromosomes. Efficient viral assembly requires that the DNA packaging motor be very fast and very powerful. The viral DNA packaging machine is an ancient invention that is found in all kingdoms, and consists of the terminase with a translocation ATPase and an endonuclease, and the icosahedral shell with its portal protein. Furthermore, how the translocation complex is assembled/disassembled, how the packaging ATPase is stimulated, and how the endonuclease and translocase activities are coordinated to orchestrate DNA processing and packaging are issues about which we know little. Understanding the biochemical and structural basis for force generation, and the dynamics of DNA compaction as well as the precise measurement of viral genome are sure to elicit some surprises. 

Force:  A surprising finding from single-molecule studies is that the phage packaging motor generates enormous force in order to package DNA. Forces as high as ∼60 pN were measured in phages ϕ29, λ, and T4, thus making the packaging motor one of the strongest force-generating biological motors reported to date.  The force is 20–25 times that of myosin, 10 times that of kinesin, or >2 times that of RNA polymerase. Such high forces seem to be essential to pack the viral DNA against the enormous electrostatic repulsive forces (and bending and entropic energies) to confine a highly negatively charged DNA polymer within a limited volume of the capsid 8
Velocity: The phage packaging motors show high rates of packaging as well as high processivity. The T4 motor can achieve rates as high as ∼2000 bp/sec, the highest recorded to date. 
Power:  Phage packaging motors generate enormous power, with the T4 motor being the fastest and the most powerful. Even with a high external load force of 40 pN, the T4 motor can translocate DNA at a remarkable speed of ∼380 bp/sec. This is equivalent to a power of 15,200 pN/bp/s, or 5.2 × 10−18 W. Scaling up the nanoscale T4 packaging motor to a macromotor, the motor power density is approximately twice that of a typical automobile engine

SUMMARY POINTS 
1. The DNA packaging machine utilizes energy from ATP hydrolysis to translocate DNA into a preformed empty shell. In the packaging machine, the packaging enzyme terminase docks on the special portal vertex of the icosahedral shell. The portal vertex is occupied by the dodecameric portal protein. The translocation ATPase and the concatemer processing endonuclease reside in the large terminase subunit. 
2. The packaging motor is an extraordinarily powerful biological motor, generating forces of about 60 pN. Translocation proceeds against a force that rises sharply as the shell is filled, resulting from extensive DNA bending and charge repulsion. The internal pressure is sufficient to power injection of much of the viral DNA during an infection. 
3. Packaging models focus on terminase and/or portal protein as the mechanical center of the motor. Models suggest that conformational changes brought about by the ATP hydrolysis cycle cause domains of the terminase and/or the portal protein to translocate DNA into the shell. 
4. The translocation ATPase center has a classic nucleotide binding fold and an ATPase catalytic pocket similar to that found in RecA and other ATPases. Structure and sequence alignments show the closest similarity to the ATPase domain of monomeric helicases. 
5. For the first time, in recent years, researchers have been able to design and execute hypothesis-driven experiments testing the predictions of translocation models. For example, genetic and biophysical experiments indicate that the portal protein does not rotate relative to the capsid shell during translocation, challenging models that invoke portal rotation during translocation. 10

Reza Vafabakhs (2014):DNA packaging into a viral capsid is a complex process consisting of initiation, elongation, and termination. It involves orchestrated coordination and sequential action of multiple proteins 11

Song Gao (2016): Genome packaging, a key step in the assembly of these viruses constitutes a significant portion of biological energy transactions occurring on the planet. These phages employ powerful molecular machines to forcibly translocate DNA into a preformed empty capsid known as procapsid or prohead. In the myoviridae phage T4, ∼171 kb genomic DNA is packaged into a  capsid. 

The packaging machine consists of three essential components:
i) TerS or the small ‘terminase’ (gp16), which recognizes the newly replicated viral genome, a head-tail concatemer that in T4 is extensively branched; 
ii) TerL or the large terminase (gp17), which forms a complex with TerS (holo-terminase) and makes a cut in the genomic DNA to initiate genome packaging; TerL also contains an ATPase activity that provides energy for DNA packaging; and 
iii) the dodecameric portal assembly (gp20), which is located at the special 5-fold vertex of the icosahedral capsid. It provides a channel through which DNA is transported into the capsid as well as a platform for assembly of gp17 into an oligomeric molecular motor. The phage T4 machine packaging at a rate of up to ∼2000 bp/sec is the fastest and most powerful machine reported to date.

The structures of all three packaging components have been determined from different viruses. They revealed highly conserved structural features even though there is no significant sequence similarity. For instance, the dodecameric portal is a cone-shaped structure consisting of crown and wing domains at the wider mouth located inside the capsid, stem domain that forms a channel, and clip domain that protrudes out at the vertex. TerL consists of two domains, an N-terminal ATPase domain and a C-terminal nuclease/translocase domain linked by a flexible hinge. The ATPase domain contains two subdomains; subdomain I having all the canonical signatures such as Walker A, Walker B, and catalytic carboxylate, and subdomain II having the regulatory sites. Cryo-EM structure of the prohead–gp17 complex showed a pentameric motor with five gp17 molecules assembled on the portal's clip domain. An electrostatic force dependent DNA packaging mechanism was proposed in which the C-domain bound to DNA, powered by ATP hydrolysis by the N-domain, moves in a piston-like fashion translocating 2-bp of DNA at a time.



Components of the bacteriophage T4 DNA packaging machine
(A) Structural model of the minimal phage T4 DNA packaging machine. It consists of the pentameric motor assembled at the dodecameric portal vertex of the capsid. 
(B) X-ray structures of TerS oligomers from different phages (T4-related phage 44RR, PDB code: 3TXQ (25); P22, PDB code: 3P9A; Sf6, PDB code: 3HEF). The SF6 structure is a model built using the X-ray structures of full-length TerS (trimer in the asymmetric unit containing two N-domains at different spatial positions; and truncated TerS lacking the N-terminal domains (amino acids 65–141; nanomer). The structures are shown in rainbow colours ranging from blue at the N-terminus to red at the C-terminus. The top views of the structures are shown in the center (magenta). The subdomains are labeled in the Sf6 TerS structure.

The first identifiable structural intermediate is a “procapsid” composed of an outer shell of 415 molecules of the coat protein (the product of gene 5), arranged with T = 7 symmetry. The procapsid does not contain nucleic acid. Instead, it contains a core composed of ~300 molecules of the scaffolding protein (encoded by gene 8 ). Biochemical and genetic studies demonstrated that in addition to scaffolding protein, the procapsid contains approximately 12 copies of the portal protein (the product of gene 1) and 12–20 copies of each of the pilot and ejection proteins (the products of genes 7, 16, and 20). All of these proteins are required for productive infection. In addition to promoting the fidelity of coat protein assembly, the results of genetic studies implicate the P22 scaffolding protein in the incorporation of these minor capsid proteins. Scaffolding-dependent minor capsid protein incorporation is observed in many assembly systems. One fivefold symmetrical vertex of the icosahedron is differentiated from the other 11 by the presence of a dodecameric portal protein complex. Structural studies indicate that the core of the portal protein is conserved among phages P22, Phi29, and SPP1. This conservation appears to extend even to the herpesviruses. DNA is packaged through this portal vertex. A terminase complex composed of multiple copies of two proteins is responsible for recognizing a “pac” sequence on the DNA, delivering the DNA to the portal vertex, and driving chemomechanical translocation through ATP hydrolysis. DNA packaging results in an approximately 10% expansion of the T = 7 lattice, a pronounced increase in stability, and the egress of the scaffolding protein. In P22 and the Bacillus subtilis phage Phi29, the scaffolding protein exits intact and can be recycled in further rounds of assembly. In most other dsDNA-containing bacteriophage and in herpesviruses, cleavage of the scaffolding protein by a virally encoded protease facilitates its removal. 9

Comment: In many biological systems, the assembly of a protein is assisted by chaperone proteins. They promote the right folding of a protein. In other cases, chaperones prevent the folding of an amino acid strand, or an RNA polymer strand too early, which has to fold into a 3D protein shape at a later stage. Chaperones are so-called helper proteins. In other cases, proteins aid during the folding process of RNAs. Larger bacteriophage capsid shells would never form, unless the scaffold proteins were readily synthesized from the get to, with the right sizes, fits, and able to join in a functional way to serve as a scaffold. 

We, humans, build a scaffold only with a purpose. For example, to build a house. To do so, several steps must proceed: The first steps involve knowing the size of the building, in order to know the size of the scaffold. Then, designing the project, the blueprint, or drawing the single scaffold units, and how they have to be assembled. Then, gathering the materials and tools needed to construct the project. Then, one needs to build the individual scaffold units with the right sizes and fits. Then, choose the location, then it's time to start setting up and assembling the scaffolding. The structure has in the end to be stabilized. Each of these individual steps requires foresight and knowledge of how to achieve the task. Several engineering challenges require a solution, foresight, and foreplanning is a must.

The capsid construction of bacteriophages like P22, which requires scaffold proteins, is IMHO a far more sophisticated process than human-built scaffolds. While human interventions is required all along building the scaffolds, bacteriophage capsid assembly is a fully autonomous, pre-programmed process.  

Procapsid morphogenesis is a nucleation process. The pathway of assembly is well directed. Approximately 120 molecules of scaffolding protein are required for procapsid assembly. Scaffolding protein dimers are the dominant active form in assembly. However, monomers are required for completion of assembly. Thus, scaffolding is required not just to nucleate assembly but throughout the assembly process. In the absence of monomeric scaffolding protein, assembly appears to become kinetically trapped leading to the production of partially formed shells. Full elongation can be achieved by the subsequent addition of monomeric scaffolding protein. Kinetic trapping can also be achieved by decreasing the ionic strength which favors the electrostatic coat/scaffolding interaction. In this case, completion can be achieved by increasing the salt concentration. Collectively, these experimental results fit nicely with the observation that the scaffolding protein is a weak monomer–dimer–tetramer association system and suggest that the proper balance between nucleation and growth is maintained through the distribution of scaffolding oligomers.

Altering the speed of a DNA packaging motor from bacteriophage T4
The speed at which a molecular motor operates is critically important for the survival of a virus or an organism but very little is known about the underlying mechanisms. Tailed bacteriophage T4 employs one of the fastest and most powerful packaging motors, a pentamer of gp17 that translocates DNA at a rate of up to ∼2000 bits per second bp/s. We hypothesize, guided by structural and genetic analyses, that a unique hydrophobic environment in the catalytic space of gp17-adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) determines the rate at which the ‘lytic water’ molecule is activated and OH− nucleophile is generated, in turn determining the speed of the motor. We tested this hypothesis by identifying two hydrophobic amino acids, M195 and F259, in the catalytic space of gp17-ATPase that are in a position to modulate motor speed. Combinatorial mutagenesis demonstrated that hydrophobic substitutions were tolerated but polar or charged substitutions resulted in null or cold-sensitive/small-plaque phenotypes. Quantitative biochemical and single-molecule analyses showed that the mutant motors exhibited 1.8- to 2.5-fold lower rate of ATP hydrolysis, 2.5- to 4.5-fold lower DNA packaging velocity, and required an activator protein, gp16 for rapid firing of ATPases. These studies uncover a speed control mechanism that might allow selection of motors with optimal performance for organisms’ survival.

Sherry Seethaler (2007): The T4 DNA-packaging motor was able to speed up and slow down as if it had gears. The researchers report that this is the first discovery of a molecular motor exhibiting widely variable speed, and they propose that the feature may have an important biological function. It may permit DNA repair, transcription or recombination-the swapping of bits of DNA to enhance genetic diversity-to take place before the genetic material is packaged within the viral capsid. "The dynamic variability of packaging rate makes sense because, in the infected cell, the DNA is not fed to the motor as a free molecule," explained Rao. "It is very likely a complex and highly metabolically active structure. Thus the motor needs to adjust the packaging rate to accommodate other processes." "Just as it is good for a car to have brakes and gears, rather than only being able to go 60 miles per hour, the DNA-packaging motor may need to slow down, or stop and wait if it encounters an obstruction," added Smith. 19

The tailed bacteriophage T4 belongs to the family of Myoviridae. It is a relatively large phage and an important model in molecular biology to elucidate basic mechanisms. During assembly, its 120 × 86 nm icosahedral head (capsid) is packaged with ∼171-kb, 56 μm-long DNA to near crystalline density. An oligomeric motor containing five subunits of gp17 ‘large terminase’ (TerL) docks on the special dodecameric portal (gp20) vertex of the capsid (Figure below)


A structural model of the phage T4 DNA packaging machine.
It consists of the pentameric motor (gp17) assembled at the dodecameric portal vertex (gp20) of the prohead (11). The model is based on the cryo-EM structure of the prohead–motor complex and functional studies

gp17 consists of an N-terminal ATPase domain that provides energy for packaging and a C-terminal nuclease/translocase domain that generates an end and translocates the genome. The ATPase domain has two subdomains; subdomain I (Nsub I) that contains all the canonical signatures including Walker A, Walker B and catalytic carboxylate, and a smaller subdomain II (Nsub II) containing sites that regulate ATP hydrolysis. The ATPase and translocase domains are linked by a flexible hinge and several charge pairs at the interface. The motor subunits are proposed to alternate between two conformational states, Extended (or Relaxed) and Compact (or Tensed), generating electrostatic force that powers translocation DNA, 2 bp at a time.

In addition to motor and portal, the phage packaging machine consists of a regulator, the 11- or 12-meric gp16 ‘small terminase’ (TerS) that interacts with gp17 to form a holo-terminase complex and regulates gp17 functions. TerS is essential for recognition and cutting of concatemeric viral genome in vivo, although the TerL motor alone is sufficient to package an already-cut DNA in vitro starting from an end. In addition, gp16 stimulates gp17-ATPase which is thought to be important for rapid firing of motor subunits when the newly created end is inserted into the motor channel for packaging initiation.

The phage T4 DNA packaging motor is the fastest and most powerful reported to date. It can package up to 2000 bp/s generating a power density of 5000 kW/m3, twice that of an automobile engine. A fast motor enables packaging of phage T4’s 171-kb genome in the same amount of time in one infection cycle as other phages that package shorter genomes. Single-molecule analyses determined that the packaging velocity of phage motors is roughly proportional to the size of the genome the motor packages; 2,000-bp/sec for T4 that packages 171-kb genome, 800-bp/s for λ that packages 48.5 kb genome, and 200-bp/s for phi29 that packages 20-kb genome.  The speed of the motor may be scaled to the size of the genome it packages, in order to optimize the motor’s performance for phage survival.

The speed at which a motor performs its task is critical for optimal functioning of a metabolic process and ultimately for the survival of an organism. The speed of different phage packaging motors may be optimized to accommodate the size of the genome the virus packages. Otherwise, a phage such as T4 that packages a large genome may not be able to effectively compete with another phage packaging much smaller genome if both phages infected the same cell. In addition, packaging sequesters the newly replicated genome inside the capsid, protecting it from degradation by nonspecific nucleases. 

Our genetic and structural analyses revealed that the hydrophobic microenvironment in the catalytic space encompassing Walker B catalytic glutamate and γ-phosphate of ATP might be a critical determinant of motor speed. Bulk solvent is excluded from this space, except for, generally, two to four water molecules of which one is the lytic water. Polarization of lytic water molecule and acceptance of a proton by the glutamate base creates an OH− nucleophile that then attacks the γ-phosphate. This architecture provides a large window to modulate hydrophobicity by introducing combinations of sidechains into this space, thereby controlling the rate at which the nucleophile is generated. The rate of ATP hydrolysis and the speed of the motor could be manipulated in this way, which allows for selection of an optimally performing motor.

Our structural analyses identified two hydrophobic residues, M195 and F259, oriented at the distance of 5.3 and 6.4 Å respectively from catalytic glutamate, which we predicted would contribute to the hydrophobicity. These residues are strictly conserved in the T4 related large terminases and notably, in the slow-packaging phage phi29 motor, the equivalently positioned residues are polar and/or charged (19). Combinatorial mutagenesis of these residues showed that, at both the positions, hydrophobic substitutions were tolerated whereas polar or charged substitutions resulted in null or partially functional phenotypes. 16


1. Sheng Cao: Insights into the Structure and Assembly of the Bacteriophage ϕ29 Double-Stranded DNA Packaging Motor 2014
2. CrevInfo: [url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111104111446/http://creationsafaris.com/crev201103.htm#20110326b]We Are Filled with Viruses[/url] 03/26/2011
3. CrevInfo: Handy Motor Found in Virus 2008
4.http://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/nn4002775
5. Purdue: Study reveals structure of DNA packaging motor in virus December 2000
6. Purdue: Biologists learn structure, mechanism of powerful 'molecular motor' in virus December 24, 2008
7. M.G. Rossmann The headful packaging nuclease of bacteriophage T4 05 August 2008
8. Purdue: Biologists learn structure of enzyme needed to power 'molecular motor' March 22, 2007
9. Song Gao: Exclusion of small terminase mediated DNA threading models for genome packaging in bacteriophage T4 2016 May 19
10. Venigalla B. Rao: The Bacteriophage DNA Packaging Motor August 7, 2008
11. Reza Vafabakhs: Single-molecule packaging initiation in real time by a viral DNA packaging machine from bacteriophage T4  2014 Oct 6
12. Zhihong Zhang: A Promiscuous DNA Packaging Machine from Bacteriophage T4[/size] 2011 Feb 15
13. Derek N. Fuller: Single phage T4 DNA packaging motors exhibit large force generation, high velocity, and dynamic variability 2007 Oct 23
14. G. Leiman: Structure and morphogenesis of bacteriophage T4 P.  9 May 2003 
15. Eric S Miller Bacteriophage T4 genome 2003 Mar;6
16. Siying Lin: Altering the speed of a DNA packaging motor from bacteriophage T4 13 September 2017
17. Shixin Liu: A Viral Packaging Motor Varies Its DNA Rotation and Step Size to Preserve Subunit Coordination as the Capsid Fills  (2015)
18. Moh Lan Yap: Structure and function of bacteriophage T4  2015 Aug 1
19. Sherry Seethaler: Powerful Molecular Motor Permits Speedy Assembly of Viruses October 29, 2007

An Updated ( But Not Exhaustive) List Of How To Detect Intelligent Design

https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t2805-how-to-recognize-the-signature-of-past-intelligent-action

Claim: Herbert Spencer:  “Those who cavalierly reject the Theory of Evolution, as not adequately supported by facts, seem quite to forget that their own theory is supported by no facts at all.”

Reply: Contrasting and comparing "intended" versus "accidental" arrangements leads us to the notion of design. We have extensive experience-based knowledge of the kinds of strategies and systems that designing minds devise to solve various kinds of functional problems. We also know a lot about the kinds of phenomena that various natural causes produce. For this reason, we can observe the natural world, and living systems, and make informed inferences based on the unraveled and discovered evidence.  A physical system is composed of a specific distribution of matter: a machine, a car, or a clock. When we describe it and quantify its size, structure, and motions, and annotate the materials used, that description contains information. When we arrange and distribute materials in a certain way for intended means, we can produce things for specific purposes and call them design. Thus, when we see a physical system and discern the arrangement of its parts having intentional functions, we call it designed.  The question thus is, when we see things in nature with purpose and appear designed, ARE they indeed the product of intentional design?  How can random, nonliving matter produce structures of mind-boggling organizational intricacies at the molecular level that leave us in awe,  so sophisticated that our most advanced technology seems pale by comparison? How can a rational, honest person analyze these systems, and say they emerged by chance? These organic structures present us with a degree of complexity that we cannot explain stochastically by unguided means. Everything we know tells us that machines, preprogrammed robotlike production lines, computers, and energy generating turbines, electric circuits, and transistors, are structures of intelligent design. The cooperation and interdependent action of proteins and co-factors in cells is stupendous and depends on very specific controlled and arranged mechanisms, precise allosteric binding sites, and finely-tuned forces. Accidents do not design machines. Intellect does.

We can recognize design and the requirement of an acting mind when we see:

1. Something new created based on no pre-existing physical conditions or state of affairs ( a concept, an idea, a plan, a project, a blueprint)
2. A specific functional state of affairs, based on and dependent on mathematical rules, that depend on specified values ( that are independent, nonconditional, and that have no deeper grounding)
3. A force/cause that secures, upholds, maintains, and stabilizes a state of affairs, avoiding stochastic chaos. Eliminating conditions that change unpredictably from instant to instant or preventing things from uncontrollably popping in and out of existence.
4. Fine-tuning or calibrating something to get the function of a (higher-order) system.
5. Selected specific materials, that have been sorted out, concentrated, and joined at a construction site. 
6. An information storage system ( paper, a computer hard disk, etc.)
7. A language, based on statistics,  semantics, syntax, pragmatics, and apobetics
8. A code system, where meaning is assigned to characters, symbols, words
9. Translation ( the assignment of the meaning of one word in one language to another of another language ) that has the same meaning
10. An information transmission system ( a radio signal, internet, email, post delivery service, etc.)
11. A plan, blueprint, architectural drawing, or scheme for accomplishing a goal, that contains instructional information, directing the making for example of a 3D artifact, 1:1 equivalent to the plan of the blueprint.
12. Conversion ( digital-analog conversion, modulators, amplifiers)
13. Overlapping codes ( where one string of information can have different meanings) 
14. Systems of interconnected software and hardware
15. A library index and fully automated information classification, storage, and retrieval program
16. A software program that directs the making, and governs the function or/and operation of devices with specific functions.
17. Energy turbines
18. To create, execute, or construct something precisely according to an instructional plan or blueprint
19. The specific complex arrangement and joint of elements, parts, or materials to create a machine or a device for specific functions
20. A machine, that is, a piece of equipment with several moving parts that uses power to do a particular type of work that achieves a specific goal
21. Repetition of a variety of complex actions with precision based on methods that obey instructions, governed by rules.
22. Preprogrammed production or assembly lines that employ a series of machines/robots in the right order that are adjusted to work in an interdependent fashion to produce a specific functional (sub) product. 
23. Factories, that operate autonomously in a preprogrammed manner, integrating information that directs functions working in a joint venture together.
24. Objects that exhibit “constrained optimization.” The optimal or best-designed laptop computer is the one that has the best balances and compromise of multiple competing factors. Any human designer knows that good design often means finding a way to meet multiple constraints. Consider airplanes. We want them to be strong, but weight is an issue, so lighter materials must be used. We want to preserve people's hearing and keep the cabin warm, so soundproofing and insulation are needed, but they add weight. All of this together determines fuel usage, which translates into how far the airplane can fly.
25. Artifacts which use might be employed in different systems (a wheel is used in cars and airplanes)
26. Error monitoring, check, and repair systems, depending on recognizing when something is broken, identifying where exactly the object is broken, to know when and how to repair it (e.g. one has to stop/or put on hold some other ongoing processes; one needs to know lots of other things, one needs to know the whole system, otherwise one creates more damage…) to know how to repair it (to use the right tools, materials, energy, etc, etc, etc ) to make sure that the repair was performed correctly.
27. Defense systems based on data collection and storage to protect a system/house, factory, etc. from invaders, intruders, enemies, killers, and destroyers.
28. Sending specific objects from address A to address B based on the address provided on the object, which informs its specific target destination. 
29. Keeping an object in a specific functional state of affairs as long as possible through regulation, and extending the duration upon which it can perform its task, using monitoring, guaranteeing homeostasis, stability, robustness, and order.
30. Self-replication of a dynamical system that results in the construction of an identical or similar copy of itself. The entire process of self-replication is data-driven and based on a sequence of events that can only be instantiated by understanding and knowing the right sequence of events. There is an interdependence of data and function. The function is performed by machines that are constructed based on the data instructions. (Source: Wikipedia) 
31. Replacing machines, systems, etc. in a factory before they break down as a preventive measure to guarantee long-lasting functionality and stability of the system/factory as a whole.
32. Recycling, which is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. The recovery of energy from waste materials is often included in this concept. The recyclability of a material depends on its ability to reacquire the properties it had in its original state. ( Source: Wikipedia) 
33. Instantiating waste management or waste disposal processes that include actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes the collection, transport, treatment, and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the waste management process. ( Source: Wikipedia) 
34. Electronic circuits are composed of various active functional components, such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors, and diodes, connected by conductive wires through which electric current can flow. The combination of components and wires allows various simple and complex operations to be performed: signals can be amplified, computations can be performed, and data can be moved from one place to another. (Source: Wikipedia) 
35. Arrangement of materials and elements into details, colors, and forms to produce an object or work of art able to transmit the sense of beauty, and elegance, that pleases the aesthetic senses, especially sight.
36. Instantiating things on the nanoscale. Know-how is required in regard to quantum chemistry techniques, chemical stability, kinetic stability of metastable structures, the consideration of close dimensional tolerances, thermal tolerances, friction, and energy dissipation, the path of implementation, etc. See: Richard Jones: Six challenges for molecular nanotechnology December 18, 2005
37. Objects in nature very similar to human-made things


The (past) action or signature of an intelligent designer in the natural world can be deduced and inferred since :

1. The universe had a beginning and was created apparently out of nothing physical. It can therefore only be the product of a powerful, intelligent mind that willed it, and decided to create it.
2. The universe obeys the laws and rules of mathematics and physics, a specific set of equations, upon which it can exist and operate. That includes Newtonian Gravity of point particles, General Relativity, and Quantum Field Theory. Everything in the universe is part of a mathematical structure. All matter is made up of particles, which have properties such as charge and spin, but these properties are purely mathematical.
3. Our universe remains orderly and predictable over huge periods of time. Atoms are stable because they are charge neutral. If it were not so, they would become ions, and annihilate in a fraction of a second. Our solar system, the trajectory of the earth surrounding the sun, and the moon surrounding the earth, are also stable, and that depends on a myriad of factors, that must be precisely adjusted and finely tuned. 
4. The Laws of physics and constants, the initial conditions of the universe, the expansion rate of the Big bang, atoms and the subatomic particles, the fundamental forces of the universe, stars, galaxies, the Solar System, the earth, the moon, the atmosphere, water, and even biochemistry on a molecular level, and the bonding forces of molecules like Watson-Crick base-pairing are finely tuned in an unimaginably narrow range to permit life.
5. Life uses a limited set of complex macro biomolecules, a universal convention, and unity which is composed of the four basic building blocks of life ( RNA and DNA, amino acids, phospholipids, and carbohydrates). They are of a very specific complex functional composition, that has to be selected and available in great quantity, and concentrated at the building site of cells. 
6. DNA is a molecule that stores assembly information through the specified complex sequence of nucleotides, which directs and instructs a functional sequence of amino acids to make molecular machines, in other words, proteins.
7. Perry Marshall (2015): Ji has identified 13 characteristics of human language. DNA shares 10 of them. Cells edit DNA. They also communicate with each other and literally speak a language he called “cellese,” described as “a self-organizing system of molecules, some of which encode, act as signs for, or trigger, gene-directed cell processes.” This comparison between cell language and human language is not a loosey-goosey analogy; it’s formal and literal.
8. L. Hood (2003): Hubert Yockey, the world's foremost biophysicist and foremost authority on biological information: "Information, transcription, translation, code, redundancy, synonymous, messenger, editing, and proofreading are all appropriate terms in biology. They take their meaning from information theory (Shannon, 1948) AND ARE NOT SYNONYMS, METAPHORS, OR ANALOGIES."
9. The ribosome translates the words of the genetic language composed of 64 codon words to the language of proteins, composed of 20 amino acids.
10. Zuckerkandl and Pauling (1965): The organization of various biological forms and their interrelationships, vis-à-vis biochemical and molecular networks, is characterized by the interlinked processes of the flow of information between the information-bearing macromolecular semantides, namely DNA and RNA, and proteins.
11. Cells in our body make use of our DNA library to extract blueprints that contain the instructions to build structures and molecular machines, proteins.
12. DNA stores both, Digital and Analog Information 
13. Pelajar: There is growing evidence that much of the DNA in higher genomes is poly-functional, with the same nucleotide contributing to more than one type of code. DNA is read in terms of reading frames of "three letter words" (codons) for a specific amino acide building block for proteins. There are actually six reading frames possible. A.Abel (2008):  The codon redundancy (“degeneracy”) found in protein-coding regions of mRNA also prescribes Translational Pausing (TP). When coupled with the appropriate interpreters, multiple meanings and functions are programmed into the same sequence of configurable switch settings. This additional layer of prescriptive Information (PI) purposely slows or speeds up the translation-decoding process within the ribosome. 
14. Nicholson (2019): At its core was the idea of the computer, which, by introducing the conceptual distinction between ‘software’ and ‘hardware’, directed the attention of researchers to the nature and coding of the genetic instructions (the software) and to the mechanisms by which these are implemented by the cell’s macromolecular components (the hardware).
15. The gene regulatory network is a fully automated, pre-programmed, ultra-complex gene information extraction and expression orchestration system. 
16. Genetic and epigenetic information ( at least 33 variations of genetic codes, and 49 epigenetic codes ) and at least 5 signaling networks direct the making of complex multicellular organisms, biodiversity, form, and architecture
17. ATP synthase is a molecular energy-generating nano-turbine ( It produces energy in the form of Adenine triphosphate ATP. Once charged, ATP can be “plugged into” a wide variety of molecular machines to perform a wide variety of functions).
18. The ribosome constructs proteins based on the precise instructions from the information stored in the genome. T. Mukai et.al (2018):Accurate protein biosynthesis is an immensely complex process involving more than 100 discrete components that must come together to translate proteins with high speed, efficiency, and fidelity. 
19. M.Piazzi: (2019): Ribosome biogenesis is a highly dynamic process in which transcription of the runes, processing/modification of the runes, association of ribosomal proteins (RPs) to the pre-runes, proper folding of the pre-runes, and transport of the maturing ribosomal subunits to the cytoplasm are all combined. In addition to the ribosomal proteins RPs that represent the structural component of the ribosome, over 200 other non-ribosomal proteins and 75 snoRNAs are required for ribosome biogenesis. 
20. Mathias Grote (2019): Today's science tells us that our bodies are filled with molecular machinery that orchestrates all sorts of life processes. When we think, microscopic "channels" open and close in our brain cell membranes; when we run, tiny "motors" spin in our muscle cell membranes; and when we see, light operates "molecular switches" in our eyes and nerves. A molecular-mechanical vision of life has become commonplace in both the halls of philosophy and the offices of drug companies, where researchers are developing “proton pump inhibitors” or medicines similar to Prozac.
21. A variety of biological events are performed in a repetitive manner, described in biomechanics, obeying complex biochemical and biomechanical signals. Those include, for example, cell migration, cell motility, traction force generation, protrusion forces, stress transmission, mechanosensing and mechanotransduction, mechanochemical coupling in biomolecular motors, synthesis, sorting, storage, and transport of biomolecules
22. Cells contain high information content that directs and controls integrated metabolic pathways which if altered are inevitably damaged or destroy their function. They also require regulation and are structured in a cascade manner, similar to electronic circuit boards.
23. Living Cells are information-driven factories. They store very complex epigenetic and genetic information through the genetic code, over forty epigenetic languages, translation systems, and signaling networks. These information systems prescribe and instruct the making and operation of cells and multicellular organisms.
24. It may well be that the designer chose to create an “OPTIMUM DESIGN” or a “ROBUST AND ADAPTABLE DESIGN” rather than a “perfect design.” Perhaps some animals or creatures behave exactly the way they do to enhance the ecology in ways that we don’t know about. Perhaps the “apparent” destructive behavior of some animals provides other animals with an advantage in order to maintain balance in nature or even to change the proportions of the animal population.
25. There are a variety of organisms, unrelated to each other, which encounter nearly identical convergent biological systems. This commonness makes little sense in light of evolutionary theory. If evolution is indeed responsible for the diversity of life, one would expect convergence to be extremely rare. Some convergent systems are bat echolocation in bats, oilbirds, and dolphins, cephalopod eye structure, similar to the vertebrate eye, an extraordinary similarity of the visual systems of sand lance (fish) and chameleon (reptile). Both the chameleon and the sand lance move their eyes independent of one another in a jerky manner, rather than in concert. Chameleons share their ballistic tongues with salamanders and sand lace fish.
26. L. DEMEESTER (2004):: Biological cells are preprogrammed to use quality-management techniques used in manufacturing today. The cell invests in defect prevention at various stages of its replication process, using 100% inspection processes, quality assurance procedures, and foolproofing techniques. An example of the cell inspecting each and every part of a product is DNA proofreading. As the DNA gets replicated, the enzyme DNA polymerase adds new nucleotides to the growing DNA strand, limiting the number of errors by removing incorrectly incorporated nucleotides with a proofreading function. Following is an impressive example:  Unbroken DNA conducts electricity, while an error blocks the current. Some repair enzymes exploit this. One pair of enzymes lock onto different parts of a DNA strand. One of them sends an electron down the strand. If the DNA is unbroken, the electron reaches the other enzyme and causes it to detach. I.e. this process scans the region of DNA between them, and if it’s clean, there is no need for repairs. But if there is a break, the electron doesn’t reach the second enzyme. This enzyme then moves along the strand until it reaches the error, and fixes it. This mechanism of repair seems to be present in all living things, from bacteria to man.
27. CRISPR-Cas is an immune system based on data storage and identity check systems. [url=by Marina V. Zaychikova]M. V. Zaychikova (2020)[/url]: CRISPR-Cas systems, widespread in bacteria and archaea, are mainly responsible for adaptive cellular immunity against exogenous DNA (plasmid and phage)
28. D.Akopian (2013): Proper localization of proteins to their correct cellular destinations is essential for sustaining the order and organization in all cells. Roughly 30% of the proteome is initially destined for the eukaryotic endoplasmic reticulum (ER), or the bacterial plasma membrane. Although the precise number of proteins remains to be determined, it is generally recognized that the majority of these proteins are delivered by the Signal Recognition Particle (SRP), a universally conserved protein targeting machine
29. Western Oregeon University: The hypothalamus is involved in the regulation of body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, and circadian rhythms (which include wake/sleep cycles).
30. As a model of a self-replicating system, it has its counterpart in life where the computer is represented by the instructions contained in the genes, while the construction machines are represented by the cell and its machinery that transcribes, translates, and replicates the information stored in genes.  RNA polymerase transcribes, and the ribosome translates the information stored in DNA and produces a Fidel reproduction of the cell and all the machinery inside of the cell. Once done, the genome is replicated, and handed over to the descendant replicated cell, and the mother cell has produced a daughter cell. 
31. L. DEMEESTER (2004): Singapore Management UniversityThe cell does not even wait until the machine fails, but replaces it long before it has a chance to break down. And second, it completely recycles the machine that is taken out of production. The components derived from this recycling process can be used not only to create other machines of the same type, but also to create different machines if that is what is needed in the “plant.” This way of handling its machines has some clear advantages for the cell. New capacity can be installed quickly to meet current demand. At the same time, there are never idle machines around taking up space or hogging important building blocks. Maintenance is a positive “side effect” of the continuous machine renewal process, thereby guaranteeing the quality of output. Finally, the ability to quickly build new production lines from scratch has allowed the cell to take advantage of a big library of contingency plans in its DNA that allow it to quickly react to a wide range of circumstances.
32. J. A. Solinger (2020): About 70–80% of endocytosed material is recycled back from sorting endosomes to the plasma membrane through different pathways. Defects in recycling lead to a myriad of human diseases such as cancer, arthrogryposis–renal dysfunction–cholestasis syndrome, Bardet–Biedl syndrome or Alzheimer’s disease
33. Proteasomes are protein complexes which degrade unneeded or damaged proteins by proteolysis, a chemical reaction that breaks peptide bonds. Enzymes that help such reactions are called proteases. ( Source: Wikipedia) G. Premananda (2013): The disposal of protein “trash” in the cell is the job of a complex machine called the proteasome.  What could be more low than trash collection?  Here also, sophisticated mechanisms work together. Two different mechanisms are required to determine which targets to destroy.” The “recognition tag” and “initiator tag.” Both mechanisms have to be aligned properly to enter the machine’s disposal barrel.  “The proteasome can recognize different plugs1, but each one has to have the correct specific arrangement of prongs.
34. S. Balaji (2004): An electronic circuit has been designed to mimic glycolysis, the Citric Acid (TCA) cycle and the electron transport chain. Enzymes play a vital role in metabolic pathways; similarly transistors play a vital role in electronic circuits; the characteristics of enzymes in comparison with those of transistors suggests that the properties are analagous.
35. M.Larkin (2018): The animal kingdom is full of beauty. From their vibrant feathers to majestic fur coats, there's no denying that some animals are just prettier than us humans.
36. David Goodsell (1996): Dozens of enzymes are needed to make the DNA bases cytosine and thymine from their component atoms. The first step is a "condensation" reaction, connecting two short molecules to form one longer chain, performed by aspartate carbamoyltransferase. The entire protein complex is composed of over 40,000 atoms, each of which plays a vital role. The handful of atoms that actually perform the chemical reaction are the central players. But they are not the only important atoms within the enzyme--every atom plays a supporting pan. The atoms lining the surfaces between subunits are chosen to complement one another exactly, to orchestrate the shifting regulatory motions. The atoms covering the surface are carefully picked to interact optimally with water, ensuring that the enzyme doesn't form a pasty aggregate, but remains an individual, floating factory. And the thousands of interior atoms are chosen to fit like a jigsaw puzzle, interlocking into a sturdy framework. Aspartate carbamoyltransferase is fully as complex as any fine automobile in our familiar world.
37. R. Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker, p. 1 "Biology is the study of complicated things that give the appearance of having been designed for a purpose." F. Crick, What Mad Pursuit,1988, p 138. “Biologists must constantly keep in mind that what they see was not designed, but rather evolved.” Richard Morris, The Fate of the Universe, 1982, 155."It is almost as though the universe had been consciously designed."

In order to convert data into a DNA format, the most famous and simple method is done by converting each two binary bits into a DNA unit. Since DNA consists of four building units (A,G,C and T), and there exists four 2-bit binary combinations, each two binary bits can map to one DNA unit. Table 1 shows an example of DNA-binary representation. For example, a message: 0110010 is encoded using Table 1 to CGAG. 


 Table 1 shows an example of DNA-binary representation. For example, a message: 0110010 is encoded using Table 1 to CGAG.

Cells are chemical factories in a literal sense: How best to explain their origin?

The simplest unit of binary code is the binary digit, or "bit," which can have one of two values: 0 or 1. The simplest unit of DNA, on the other hand, is the nucleotide, which can have one of four bases: adenine, cytosine, thymine or guanine (A, C, T or G). This increased variation means that each nucleotide of DNA can hold twice as much information as each digit of a binary program. Computers and biological systems both read their respective codes in blocks of several units instead of analysing each bit or nucleotide individually. Binary information is grouped into sets of eight bits, called bytes; each byte thus has one of 256 possible configurations of zeros and ones. Genetic information instead comes in triplets of nucleotides known as codons, which represent different amino acids, meaning that each DNA "byte" has only 64 possibilities. In digital code, a single inaccurate bit causes its byte to have a different value, which can introduce significant errors to a computer program. DNA is considerably more resilient in comparison, as many nucleotide changes do not result in changes to the value of -- the amino acid coded by -- a codon. Although 64 codons are possible, biological machinery uses only 20 amino acids in the construction of proteins. Many codons that differ by one nucleotide therefore code for the same amino acid, a property known as redundancy. Redundancy protects genetic data from some inevitable errors that occur in the replication and reading of DNA. Human DNA has approximately 3 billion base pairs. That means 4^3,000,000,000 possible base sequences.

For simplicity, let’s say that each gene is either suppressed, or not, in the epigenome. That would be a binary choice for each gene. Most humans have between 20,000 and 25,000 genes. Let’s say the average is about 2^22,500 more choices.The length of DNA varies for different species. Humans, with about 3 billion base pairs, have neither the largest nor smallest genome.Normally we specify the “amount of information” in bits; so 2^n choices requires n bits. Note that 4^j = (22)^j = 2^(2j).

Therefore, human DNA genome encodes 4^(3 billion) = 2^(6 billion) choices, or 6 billion bits of information. The epigenome encodes at least 2^22,500 choices, or 22,500 bits. The total information is 6,000,022,500 bits, or approximately 6 Gb (gigabits).We usually discuss computer storage in bytes rather than bits. 6 Gb would amount to 6/7 = 0.857 GB (gigabytes), or 857 MB (megabytes), using ASCII code.


Foglets (2020): The simplest unit of binary code is the binary digit, or "bit," which can have one of two values: 0 or 1. The simplest unit of DNA, on the other hand, is the nucleotide, which can have one of four bases: adenine, cytosine, thymine or guanine (A, C, T or G). This increased variation means that each nucleotide of DNA can hold twice as much information as each digit of a binary program. Computers and biological systems both read their respective codes in blocks of several units instead of analysing each bit or nucleotide individually. Binary information is grouped into sets of eight bits, called bytes; each byte thus has one of 256 possible configurations of zeros and ones. Genetic information instead comes in triplets of nucleotides known as codons, which represent different amino acids, meaning that each DNA "byte" has only 64 possibilities. In digital code, a single inaccurate bit causes its byte to have a different value, which can introduce significant errors to a computer program. DNA is considerably more resilient in comparison, as many nucleotide changes do not result in changes to the value of -- the amino acid coded by -- a codon. Although 64 codons are possible, biological machinery uses only 20 amino acids in the construction of proteins. Many codons that differ by one nucleotide therefore code for the same amino acid, a property known as redundancy. Redundancy protects genetic data from some inevitable errors that occur in the replication and reading of DNA. Human DNA has approximately 3 billion base pairs. That means 4^3,000,000,000 possible base sequences.

For simplicity, let’s say that each gene is either suppressed, or not, in the epigenome. That would be a binary choice for each gene. Most humans have between 20,000 and 25,000 genes. Let’s say the average is about 2^22,500 more choices.The length of DNA varies for different species. Humans, with about 3 billion base pairs, have neither the largest nor smallest genome.Normally we specify the “amount of information” in bits; so 2^n choices requires n bits. Note that 4^j = (22)^j = 2^(2j).

Therefore, human DNA genome encodes 4^(3 billion) = 2^(6 billion) choices, or 6 billion bits of information. The epigenome encodes at least 2^22,500 choices, or 22,500 bits. The total information is 6,000,022,500 bits, or approximately 6 Gb (gigabits).We usually discuss computer storage in bytes rather than bits. 6 Gb would amount to 6/7 = 0.857 GB (gigabytes), or 857 MB (megabytes), using ASCII code.
https://foglets.com/binary-code-vs-genetic-code/


So let us attempt to evolve a factory, that is controlled by a CPU, that has a software code of 1,3 million bits

S. Marwan (2017):  Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the hereditary material in all living organisms. It is considered as the building blocks of life since it contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of the body's information. DNA stores the body’s information as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). DNA consists of two strands formed by pairing up each two bases together, namely A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide, which is the building block of the DNA. Every of three bases is called a codon, e.g. ACG, TAC, CGA, .. etc. There are 64 codons since there exist only 4 DNA bases. When a cell uses the information in a DNA, the DNA sequence is duplicated and then copied to a complementary RNA sequence (another important nucleic acid). Usually, this RNA copy is then used to make a matching protein sequence. This process is referred to as the central dogma. Each DNA base pair is a combination of two nucleotides: adenine (A) and thymine (T), or cytosine (C) with guanine (G). Each pair can be represented as a bit, for example AT or TA as zero and CG or GC as one.



into a motorcycle by the gradual accumulation of mutations. Suppose that a factory produced bicycles, but that occasionally there was a mistake in manufacture. Let us further suppose that if the mistake led to an improvement in the bicycle, then the friends and neighbors of the lucky buyer would demand similar bikes, and the factory would retool to make the mutation a permanent feature. So, like biological mutations, successful mechanical mutations would reproduce and spread. If we are to keep our analogy relevant to biology, however, each change can only be a slight modification, duplication, or rearrangement of a preexisting component, and the change must improve the function of the bicycle. So if the factory mistakenly increased the size of a nut or decreased the diameter of a bolt, or added an extra wheel onto the front axle or left off the rear tire, or put a pedal on the handlebars or added extra spokes, and if any of these slight changes improved the bike ride, then the improvement would immediately be noticed by the buying public and the mutated bikes would, in true Darwinian fashion, dominate the market. Given these conditions, can we evolve a bicycle into a motorcycle? We can move in the right direction by making the seat more comfortable in small steps, the wheels bigger, and even (assuming our customers prefer the «biker» look) imitating the overall shape in various ways. But a motorcycle depends on a source of fuel, and a bicycle has nothing that can be slightly modified to become a gasoline tank. And what part of the bicycle could be duplicated to begin building a motor? Even if a lucky accident brought a lawnmower engine from a neighboring factory into the bicycle factory, the motor would have to be mounted on the bike and be connected in the right way to the drive chain. How could this be done step-by-step from bicycle parts? A factory that made bicycles simply could not produce a motorcycle by natural selection acting on variation—by «numerous, successive, slight modifications»—and in fact there is no example in history of a complex change in a product occurring in this manner.
So far we have examined the question of irreducible complexity as a challenge to step-by-step evolution. But there is another difficulty for Darwin.  If the base were made out of paper, for example, the trap would fall apart. If the hammer were too heavy, it would break the spring. If the spring were too loose, it would not move the hammer. If the holding bar were too short, it would not reach the catch. If the catch were too large, it would not release at the proper time. A simple list of components of a mousetrap is necessary, but not sufficient, to make a functioning mousetrap.

In order to be a candidate for natural selection a system must have minimal function: the ability to accomplish a task in physically realistic circumstances. A mousetrap made of unsuitable materials would not meet the criterion of minimal function, but even complex machines that do what they are supposed to do may not be of much use. To illustrate, suppose that the world's first outboard motor had been designed and was being marketed. The motor functioned smoothly— burning gasoline at a controlled rate, transmitting the force along an axle, and turning the propeller—but the propeller rotated at only one revolution per hour. This is an impressive technological feat; after all, burning gasoline in a can next to a propeller doesn't turn it at all. Nonetheless, few people would purchase such a machine, because it fails to perform at a level suitable for its purpose.

Performance can be unsuitable for either of two reasons. The first reason is that the machine does not get the job done. A couple fishing in the middle of a lake in a boat with a slow-tuming propeller would not get to the dock: random currents of the water and wind would knock their boat off course. The second reason that performance might be unsuitable is if it is less efficient than can be achieved with simpler means. No one would use an inefficient, outboard motor if they could do just as well or better with a sail.

The «simplest» self-sufficient, replicating cell has the capacity to produce thousands of different proteins and other molecules, at different times and under variable conditions. Synthesis, degradation, energy generation, replication, maintenance of cell architecture, mobility, regulation, repair, communication—all of these functions take place in virtually every cell, and each function itself requires the interaction of numerous parts. Because each cell is such an interwoven meshwork of systems, we would be repeating the mistake of Francis Hitching by asking if multicellular structures could have evolved in step-by-step Darwinian fashion. That would be like asking not whether a bicycle could evolve into a motorcycle, but whether a bicycle factory could evolve into a motorcycle factory! Evolution does not take place on the factory level; it takes place on the nut-and-bolt level.
The arguments of Dawkins and Hitching fail because they never discuss what is contained in the systems over which they are arguing. Not only is the eye exceedingly complex, but the «light-sensitive spot» with which Dawkins begins his case is itself a multicelled organ, each of whose cells makes the complexity of a motorcycle or television set NUTS AND BOLTS

Mechanical objects can't reproduce and mutate like biological systems, but hypothesizing comparable events at an imaginary factory shows that mutation and reproduction are not the main barriers to evolution of mechanical objects. It is the requirements of the structure-function relationship itself that block Darwinian-style evolution.

if it is the job of one protein to bind specifically to a second protein, then their two shapes must fit each other like a hand in a glove. If there is a positively charged amino acid on the first protein, then the second protein better have a negatively charged amino acid; otherwise, the two will not stick together. If it is the job of a protein to catalyze a chemical reaction, then the shape of the enzyme generally matches the shape of the chemical that is its target. When it binds, the enzyme has amino acids precisely positioned to cause a chemical reaction. If the shape of a wrench or a jigsaw is significantly warped, then the tool doesn't work.

Calling a cell a factory is an understatement. New York City has about 900.000 buildings, of which about 40.000 are in Manhattan, of which 7.000 are skyscrapers of high-rise buildings of at least 115 feet (35 m), of which at least 95 are taller than 650 feet (198 m).

Cells are an entire industrial park, where only the number of factories producing the machines used in the industrial park is of size at least 10 times the size of New York City, where each building is individually a factory comparable to the size of a skyscraper like the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center. Each tower hosts a factory that makes factories that make machines. A mammalian cell may harbor as many as 10 million ribosomes. The nucleolus is the factory that makes ribosomes, the factory that makes proteins, which are the molecular machines of the cell. The nucleolus can be thought of as a large factory at which different noncoding RNAs are transcribed, processed, and assembled with proteins to form a large variety of ribonucleoprotein complexes.

L. Lindahl (2022): Ribosome assembly requires synthesis and modification of its components, which occurs simultaneously with their assembly into ribosomal particles. The formation occurs by a stepwise ordered addition of ribosome components. The process is assisted by many assembly factors that facilitate and monitor the individual steps, for example by modifying ribosomal components, releasing assembly factors from an assembly intermediate, or forcing specific structural configurations. The quality of the ribosome population is controlled by a complement of nucleases that degrade assembly intermediates with an inappropriate structure and/or which constitute kinetic traps. 

Mitochondria, the powerhouse of the cell, can host up to 5000 ATP synthase energy turbines. Each human heart muscle cell contains up to 8,000 mitochondria. That means, in each of the human heart cells, there are up to 40 million ATP synthase energy turbines caring for the production of ATP, the energy currency in the cell.

M.Denton (2020): The miracle of the Cell :

Pg.11
Where the cosmos feels infinitely large and the atomic realm infinitely small, the cell feels infinitely complex. They appear in so many ways supremely fit to fulfill their role as the basic unit of biological life.

Pg. 329.
We would see [in cells] that nearly every feature of our own advanced machines had its analog in the cell: artificial languages and their decoding systems, memory banks for information storage and retrieval, elegant control systems regulating the automated assembly of parts and components, error fail-safe and proof-reading devices utilized for quality control, assembly processes involving the principle of prefabrication and modular construction. In fact, so deep would be the feeling of deja-vu, so persuasive the analogy, that much of the terminology we would use to describe this fascinating molecular reality would be borrowed from the world of late-twentieth-century technology.
   “What we would be witnessing would be an object resembling an immense automated factory, a factory larger than a city and carrying out almost as many unique functions as all the manufacturing activities of man on earth. However, it would be a factory that would have one capacity not equaled in any of our own most advanced machines, for it would be capable of replicating its entire structure within a matter of a few hours. To witness such an act at a magnification of one thousand million times would be an awe-inspiring spectacle.”

M. Denton (1985) Evolution, a theory in crisis:
To grasp the reality of life as it has been revealed by molecular biology, we must magnify a cell a thousand million times until it is twenty kilometres in diameter and resembles a giant airship large enough to cover a great city like London or New York. What we would then see would be an object of unparalleled complexity and adaptive design. On the surface of the cell we would see millions of openings, like the port holes of a vast space ship, opening and closing to allow a continual stream of materials to flow in and out. If we were to enter one of these openings we would find ourselves in a world of supreme technology and bewildering complexity. We would see endless highly organized corridors and conduits branching in every direction away from the perimeter of the cell, some leading to the central memory bank in the nucleus and others to assembly plants and processing units. The nucleus itself would be a vast spherical chamber more than a kilometre in diameter, resembling a geodesic dome inside of which we would see, all neatly stacked together in ordered arrays, the miles of coiled chains of the DNA molecules.

A huge range of products and raw materials would shuttle along all the manifold conduits in a highly ordered fashion to and from all the various assembly plants in the outer regions of the cell. We would wonder at the level of control implicit in the movement of so many objects down so many seemingly endless conduits, all in perfect unison. We would see all around us, in every direction we looked, all sorts of robot-like machines. We would notice that the simplest of the functional components of the cell, the protein molecules, were astonishingly, complex pieces of molecular machinery, each one consisting of about three thousand atoms arranged in highly organized 3-D spatial conformation... Yet the life of the cell depends on the integrated activities of thousands, certainly tens, and probably hundreds of thousands of different protein molecules.

We would see that nearly every feature of our own advanced machines had its analogue in the cell: artificial languages and their decoding systems, memory banks for information storage and retrieval, elegant control systems regulating the automated assembly of parts and components, error fail-safe and proof-reading devices utilized for quality control, assembly processes involving the principle of prefabrication and modular construction. In fact, so deep would be the feeling of deja-vu, so persuasive the analogy, that much of the terminology we would use to describe this fascinating molecular reality would be borrowed from the world of late twentieth-century technology.

What we would be witnessing would be an object resembling an immense automated factory, a factory larger than a city and carrying out almost as many unique functions as all the manufacturing activities of man on earth..

Imagine a hypothetical human-made truly autonomous self-replicating factory analogous to living cells. It would have to be capable of replicating itself and constructing a copy of itself, without external help. Able to detect raw materials in its surroundings, in the environment,  that it needs, and prepare them to be transformed into the right form, so that import gates and mechanisms could import these materials into the factory inside. The daughter factory would require to get the entire information stored in the mother cell inherited. It would rely on conventional large-scale technology and automation. 

M. Sipper (1998): We would need to be able to understand the fundamental information-processing principles and algorithms involved in self-replication, even independent of their physical realization.1

Replicators have been called "von Neumann machines" after John von Neumann, who first rigorously studied the idea. Von Neumann himself used the term universal constructor to describe such a self-replicating machine. For a factory or machine to make a duplicate copy it must employ a description of itself. This description, being a part of the original factory, must itself be prescribed by something else that is not itself. That is, it must come from the outside. Why? In order to describe something, one needs to be a conscious agent, able to do so. If the factory itself was not the conscious agent, being able to observe and describe itself, it must have been something else. I, as a human being, conscious, can observe and describe myself. A non-conscious "something" has never been seen as having these necessary cognitive and intelligent capabilities. That's why the origin of biological information is an unsolvable problem for naturalists. That's why the origin of the information to make the first living self-replicating cell cannot be solved unless there was a creator. Another salient point: Parts, subunits, or an agglomeration of building blocks do not comprehend how they could join to become part of a functional interlocked complex system. So in order to construct a self-replicating system composed of many interlocking parts, foresight is required, otherwise, the parts could either remain non-assembled, disintegrate, or, eventually, driven by random external forces, interact and assemble into a basically infinite number of nonfunctional chaotic aggregation states.

R. A. Freitas (2004): Von Neumann thus hit upon a deceptively simple architecture for machine replication. The machine would have four parts:   

1. a constructor “A” that can build a machine “X” when fed explicit blueprints of that machine; 
2. a blueprint copier “B”; 
3. a controller “C” that controls the actions of the constructor and the copier, actuating them alternately; and finally 
4. a set of blueprints φ(A + B + C) explicitly describing how to build a constructor, a controller, and a copier. 

The entire replicator may therefore be described as (A + B + C) + φ(A + B + C.

Observers have noted that von Neumann’s early schema was later confirmed by subsequent research on the molecular biology of cellular reproduction, with von Neumann’s component “A” represented by the ribosomes and supporting cellular mechanisms, component “B” represented by DNA polymerase enzymes, component “C” represented by repressor and derepressor molecules and associated expression-control machinery in the cell, and finally component “φ(A + B + C)” represented by the genetic material DNA that carries the organism’s genome. (The correspondence is not complete: cells include additional complexities.) More importantly, the dual use of information — both interpreted and uninterpreted, as in von Neumann’s machine schema — was also found to be true for the information contained in DNA.2  

M. Sipper (1998): A noteworthy distinction apparent in von Neumann’s model of self-replication is the double-faceted use of the information stored in the artificial genome: It first serves as instructions to be interpreted so as to construct a new universal constructor, after which this same genome is copied unmodified, to be attached to the new offspring constructor—so that it may replicate in its turn. This aspect is quite interesting in that it bears strong resemblance to the genetic mechanisms of transcription (copying) and translation (interpretation) employed by biological life—which was discovered during the decade following von Neumann’s work. Von Neumann’s model employs a complex transition rule, with the total number of cells composing the universal constructor estimated at between 50,000 and 200,000 (the literature seems to disagree on the exact number). In the years that followed its introduction a number of researchers had worked toward simplifying this system. In the late 1960s Codd reduced the number of states required for a self-replicating universal constructor-computer from 29 to 8. His self-replicating structure comprised about 100,000,000 cells. A few years later Devore simplified Codd’s system, devising a self-replicating automaton comprising about 100,000 cells. 

Despite the complexity of von Neumann’s self-replicating universal constructor, a number of researchers have considered its implementation (or simulation) over the years. Signorini concentrated on the 29-state transition rule, discussing its implementation on a SIMD (single-instruction multiple-data) computer. Von Neumann’s constructor is divided into many functional blocks known as organs. In addition to implementing the transition rule, Signorini also presented the implementation of three such organs: a pulser, a decoder, and a periodic pulser. To date, Pesavento’s more recent work comes closest to a full simulation of von Neumann’s model. A computer simulation of the universal constructor—running on a standard workstation—even this comes short of realizing the full model: Self-replication is not demonstrated because the tape required to describe the constructor (i.e., the genome) is too large to simulate.1

R. A. Freitas (2004): Penrose, quoting Kemeny, complained that the body of the von Neumann kinematic machine “would be a box containing a minimum of 32,000 constituent parts (likely to include rolls of tape, pencils, erasers, vacuum tubes, dials, photoelectric cells, motors, batteries, and other devices) and the ‘tail’ would comprise 150,000 [bits] of information.” Macroscale kinematic replicators will require a great deal of effort to design and to build, which may explain why so few working devices have been constructed to date,* despite popular interest.2  

Comment: A Von Neumann self-replicating machine has never been constructed because it is too complicated. Man, with all its intelligence, has failed. But, if abiogenesis is true, the emergence of self-replicating cells with a minimum of one million bits of information happened from randomly distributed, nonreplicating components by entirely non-intelligent unguided means.

A Self-Replicating Box

G. SEWELL (2021): To understand why human-engineered self-replicating machines are so far beyond current human technology, let’s imagine trying to design something as “simple” as a self-replicating cardboard box. Let’s place an empty cardboard box (A) on the floor, and to the right of it let’s construct a box (B) with a box-building factory inside it. I’m not sure exactly what the new box would need to build an empty box, but I assume it would at least have to have some metal parts to cut and fold the cardboard and a motor with a battery to power these parts. In reality, to be really self-replicating like living things, it would have to go get its own cardboard, so maybe it would need wheels and an axe to cut down trees and a small sawmill to make cardboard out of wood. But let’s be generous and assume humans are still around to supply the cardboard. Well, of course box B is not a self-replicating machine, because it only produces an empty box A.

So, to the right of this box, let’s build another box C which contains a fully automated factory that can produce box B’s. This is a much more complicated box, because this one must manufacture the metal parts for the machinery in box B and its motor and battery and assemble the parts into the factory inside B. In reality it needs to go mine some ore and smelt it to produce these metal parts, but again let’s be very generous and provide it all the metals and other raw materials it needs.

But box C would still not be a self-replicating machine, because it only produces the much simpler box B. So back to work, now we need to build a box D to its right with a fully automated factory capable of building box C’s with their box B factories. Well, you get the idea, and one begins to wonder if it is even theoretically possible to build a truly self-replicating machine. When we add technology to such a machine to bring it closer to the goal of reproduction, we only move the goalposts, because now we have a more complicated machine to reproduce. Yet we see such machines all around us in the living world.

If we keep adding boxes to the right, each with a fully automated factory that can produce the box to its left, it seems to me that the boxes would grow exponentially in complexity. But maybe I am wrong. Maybe they could be designed to converge eventually to a self-replicating box Z, although I can’t imagine how.3

Now let us suppose for a moment we had a fully developed, self-replicating factory, and had the intent to transform it into 

So let us attempt to evolve a bicycle into a motorcycle by the gradual accumulation of mutations. Suppose that a factory produced bicycles, but that occasionally there was a mistake in manufacture. Let us further suppose that if the mistake led to an improvement in the bicycle, then the friends and neighbors of the lucky buyer would demand similar bikes, and the factory would retool to make the mutation a permanent feature. So, like biological mutations, successful mechanical mutations would reproduce and spread. If we are to keep our analogy relevant to biology, however, each change can only be a slight modification, duplication, or rearrangement of a preexisting component, and the change must improve the function of the bicycle. So if the factory mistakenly increased the size of a nut or decreased the diameter of a bolt, or added an extra wheel onto the front axle or left off the rear tire, or put a pedal on the handlebars or added extra spokes, and if any of these slight changes improved the bike ride, then the improvement would immediately be noticed by the buying public and the mutated bikes would, in true Darwinian fashion, dominate the market. Given these conditions, can we evolve a bicycle into a motorcycle? We can move in the right direction by making the seat more comfortable in small steps, the wheels bigger, and even (assuming our customers prefer the «biker» look) imitating the overall shape in various ways. But a motorcycle depends on a source of fuel, and a bicycle has nothing that can be slightly modified to become a gasoline tank. And what part of the bicycle could be duplicated to begin building a motor? Even if a lucky accident brought a lawnmower engine from a neighboring factory into the bicycle factory, the motor would have to be mounted on the bike and be connected in the right way to the drive chain. How could this be done step-by-step from bicycle parts? A factory that made bicycles simply could not produce a motorcycle by natural selection acting on variation—by «numerous, successive, slight modifications»—and in fact there is no example in history of a complex change in a product occurring in this manner.
So far we have examined the question of irreducible complexity as a challenge to step-by-step evolution. But there is another difficulty for Darwin.  If the base were made out of paper, for example, the trap would fall apart. If the hammer were too heavy, it would break the spring. If the spring were too loose, it would not move the hammer. If the holding bar were too short, it would not reach the catch. If the catch were too large, it would not release at the proper time. A simple list of components of a mousetrap is necessary, but not sufficient, to make a functioning mousetrap.

In order to be a candidate for natural selection a system must have minimal function: the ability to accomplish a task in physically realistic circumstances. A mousetrap made of unsuitable materials would not meet the criterion of minimal function, but even complex machines that do what they are supposed to do may not be of much use. To illustrate, suppose that the world's first outboard motor had been designed and was being marketed. The motor functioned smoothly— burning gasoline at a controlled rate, transmitting the force along an axle, and turning the propeller—but the propeller rotated at only one revolution per hour. This is an impressive technological feat; after all, burning gasoline in a can next to a propeller doesn't turn it at all. Nonetheless, few people would purchase such a machine, because it fails to perform at a level suitable for its purpose.

Performance can be unsuitable for either of two reasons. The first reason is that the machine does not get the job done. A couple fishing in the middle of a lake in a boat with a slow-tuming propeller would not get to the dock: random currents of the water and wind would knock their boat off course. The second reason that performance might be unsuitable is if it is less efficient than can be achieved with simpler means. No one would use an inefficient, outboard motor if they could do just as well or better with a sail.

The «simplest» self-sufficient, replicating cell has the capacity to produce thousands of different proteins and other molecules, at different times and under variable conditions. Synthesis, degradation, energy generation, replication, maintenance of cell architecture, mobility, regulation, repair, communication—all of these functions take place in virtually every cell, and each function itself requires the interaction of numerous parts. Because each cell is such an interwoven meshwork of systems, we would be repeating the mistake of Francis Hitching by asking if multicellular structures could have evolved in step-by-step Darwinian fashion. That would be like asking not whether a bicycle could evolve into a motorcycle, but whether a bicycle factory could evolve into a motorcycle factory! Evolution does not take place on the factory level; it takes place on the nut-and-bolt level.
The arguments of Dawkins and Hitching fail because they never discuss what is contained in the systems over which they are arguing. Not only is the eye exceedingly complex, but the «light-sensitive spot» with which Dawkins begins his case is itself a multicelled organ, each of whose cells makes the complexity of a motorcycle or television set NUTS AND BOLTS

Mechanical objects can't reproduce and mutate like biological systems, but hypothesizing comparable events at an imaginary factory shows that mutation and reproduction are not the main barriers to evolution of mechanical objects. It is the requirements of the structure-function relationship itself that block Darwinian-style evolution.

1. Moshe Sipper: Fifty Years of Research on Self-Replication: An Overview 1998
2. Robert A. Freitas: Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines 2004
3. G. SEWELL: The First “Simple” Self-Replicator? September 13, 2021

Who has believed my message? I have no beauty or majesty to be attractive to you. Nothing in my appearance that you should desire me.  I was despised and rejected by mankind, a man of suffering, and familiar with pain. Like one from whom people hide their faces I was despised and held in low esteem. Indeed I took up your pain and bore your suffering. I was considered punished by God, stricken by him, and afflicted. But I was pierced for your transgressions, I was crushed for your iniquities; the punishment that brought you peace was on me, and by my wounds, you are healed. You, like sheep, went astray, and turned to your own way; And my father has laid on me your iniquities. I was oppressed and afflicted, yet I did not open my mouth; I was led like a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep, before its shearers are silent, I did not open my mouth. By oppression[a] and judgment, I was taken away. Yet who of my generation protested? I was cut off from the land of the living; for your transgressions, I was punished. I was assigned a grave with the rich in my death, though I had done no violence, nor was any deceit in my mouth. Yet it was my father's will to crush me and cause me to suffer, and though I made my life an offering for sin, I will see the fruit of my suffering and prolong my days, and the will of my father will prosper in my hands. After I suffered, I have seen the light of life and been satisfied; by my knowledge, as a righteous servant of my father, will justify many, and I will bear your iniquities. Therefore my father will give me a portion among the great and I will divide the spoils with the strong, because I poured out my life unto death, and was numbered with the transgressors. For I bore the sin of many and made intercession for the transgressors.

Date of Christ’s Birth

Those who believe that Jesus was born in 6-4 B.C. do so because they believe that Herod the Great died in 4 B.C. Herod the Great was the king who was alive at the time that Jesus was born. He was the one who killed the children under 2 years of age in Matthew 2. Jack Finegan has published a monumental book that strongly indicates Herod the Great did not die in 4 B.C. but around 1 B.C. That changes the date of Jesus’s birth.



Historical data reveals that Herod died just after a full lunar eclipse. A lunar eclipse occurred on January 10, 1 B.C. It was total and lasted longer than the lunar eclipse on March 13, 4 B.C. Josephus and astronomy support this claim. Finegan also suggests that the governor Quirinius of Luke 2:2 reigned in 3-2 B.C. Wieseler provides supporting evidence that Publius Sulpicius Quirinius was the rector or acting governor over Syria from about 4 B.C. to 1 B.C.



If we look at the reigns of other kings, governors, and the tenure of Israel’s chief priests around the time Jesus lived, we discover that Jesus had to be born sometime around 3-2 B.C. Early church fathers such as Eusebius, Hippolytus of Rome, Irenaeus, Julius Africanus, Origin, and Tertullian all claimed that Jesus was born about 3-2 B.C. The Jewish historian Josephus also adds his weight to the date. Collectively, this information suggests that Jesus was born 3-2 B.C.

Length of Christ’s Life

Now how long did Jesus live after His birth? The apostle Luke helps answer the question when he tells us that Jesus started His ministry at about the age of 30 years.

Luke 3:23 (NASB) And when He began His ministry, Jesus Himself was about thirty years of age . . .

This means that Jesus could have started His ministry when He was 29 years of age or maybe when he was 31 years of age. This gives us a range of dates for the start of His ministry from 27 A.D. to 30 A.D. (remember there is only one year from 1 B.C. to 1 A.D.). Since Jesus’ ministry lasted somewhere between three to four plus years, Jesus’ ministry could have lasted until He was 30 years or 34 years of age.



Elapse Time of The Prophecy — 69 Weeks

Next we need to determine how much time was predicted to occur between the start and end date of the prophecy. The predicted time of the prophecy is given by the statement “seven weeks and sixty-two weeks,” because Daniel 9:25-26 has told us that this is the elapsed time between the start date, “issuing of a decree to restore and rebuild the city of Jerusalem”, to the end date, “until Messiah the Prince is cut-off and have nothing” is a sixty-nine week period of time.

We understand that the phrase “sixty-two weeks,” in verse 26, follows the phrase seven weeks. Some have attributed special significance to the “seven weeks” period or 49 years, but the book of Daniel does not tell us. It is only creative guess work to conclude that there is some special significance. Therefore, 69 weeks has elapsed when we are told that “Messiah the Prince is cut-off and have nothing.”

Who is this Messiah?

But who is this Messiah? One man fulfills all that is required in this passage. Jesus of Nazareth was born into the Jewish world and proclaimed his messiahship 483 years after the decree to rebuild and restore Jerusalem was issued.  Daniel indicated that he would be cut off, not for himself, but rather for others. Isaiah 53 also prophesied the death of the Messiah, pointing out that he would die a substitutionary death on behalf of his people Israel. The teaching of the New Covenant is that Jesus died a penal death by taking upon himself the penalty of the Law as a substitute for his people. In keeping with Daniel 9:24, he died for the purpose of making an atonement for sins. Three days after his death, he was resurrected. Finally, the New Covenant proclaims the fact that he will someday return to set up his kingdom and the age of righteousness. If Daniel was right, then Messiah came and died prior to the year 70 C.E. If Daniel was right, then there are no other options for who the Messiah is, but Jesus of Nazareth. If Daniel was right, this Jesus is destined to return and to set up the messianic kingdom.8

The predicted death

“the Messiah shall be cut off and not for himself” The Hebrew word translated “cut off” is the common word used in the Mosaic Law and simply means “to be killed.” The Hebrew expression translated “and not for himself” has two meanings. It may mean “nothingness,” emphasizing Messiah’s state at death and he died for others rather than for himself. The point of this phrase is that between the end of the second subdivision (the 69th seven) and before the start of the 70th seven, Messiah would be killed and not for himself. During this interim period “the people of the prince that shall come shall destroy the city and the sanctuary; and the end thereof shall be with a flood.…” The city and the temple that were to be rebuilt would now be destroyed. So sometime after the Messiah was cut off, Jerusalem and the temple would suffer another destruction. The Romans, and Jerusalem, and the temple were destroyed in the year 70 C. E. Based upon this verse, it is also clear that the Messiah should have both come and died prior to the year 70 C.E.

The provided witness 

In Luke 2:25-38, we learn about Simeon and Anna who also obeyed and clearly understood the time the Messiah was coming according to Daniel in God’s Word. Daniel was in Babylon, so he would have used the Babylonian calendar and not the Jewish calendar. The Babylonian calendar is 360 days and the Jewish is 365. Some scholars I have read have a hard time lining up the Daniel 9 timing with Jesus's death because they assume the Jewish calendar was used. Using the 365-day calendar produces errors in dating. However if you use the 360-day calendar, it works out to the very day that Jesus entered Jerusalem the day of His triumphal entry. One wonders at the reception He was given. He was hailed as the Messiah very clearly. The people knew from Daniel's prophecy that the time of fulfillment was at hand. 

THEY WERE WAITING FOR HIM!

Jesus delayed His trip so that His entry to Jerusalem would line up exactly with Daniel's prophecy when the correct calendar was used.

Yēśū khrīṣṭa mārphata muktikō sandēśa.

My name is  Luis Umpierre, philosopher of science.  Whatever exists for beneficial purposes must be the result of reason, not of chance. What a great point by Socrates. When we see a higher-order system that performs a specific function, a machine, a factory, or a turbine, we know someone made it for a reason. These things are dependent on specified values, mathematical rules, fine-tuning, and calibrated adjustments, often made of several interdependent and interlocked parts that permit the operation of that system in a regular stable manner, guaranteeing the continuity of its function. The complex parts must fit together, and be assembled in the right way. Someone with intelligence and foresight has to conceptualize these things and create a blueprint, that instructs how to make these things.   We can say with certainty, that such systems are the product of a mind. Another signature of intelligent action is irreducible complexity. Let's hear what Wilkins and Paley had to say about it:

In 1859 Charles Darwin submitted a manuscript entitled “An Abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties through Natural Selection” to John Murray III, who published the text under the title:  On the Origin of Species. On many pages of this book, Darwin contrasted his naturalistic theory that explains the transmutation and diversification of animals and plants with the Bible-based belief that all species were independently created. The innovation here was that another causal mechanism of the origins of species was popularized: Natural selection. While the idea was not new, going indeed back to Aristoteles, it was through Darwin that the term became popularised.

But would natural selection be a capable, alternative mechanism, more adequate to explain the origin of biodiversity?

17. As is written in Matthew 4:12–17, my ministry started in Galilee. I left Nazareth, where I grew up, and went to live in Capernaum which was by the lake in the area of Zebulun and Naphtali. That was a fulfillment of the prophecy in Isaiah 9:1–2: In the future, he will honor Galilee of the nations, by the Way of the Sea, beyond the Jordan— The people walking in darkness have seen a great light; on those living in the land of deep darkness a light has dawned”.  Many people, because they had heard that I performed miracles,  went out to meet me. 18, This was reported in John 12:18–21, and a fulfillment of the prophecy in Isaiah 11:10: “In that day the Root of Jesse will stand as a banner for the peoples; the nations will rally to him, and his resting place will be glorious”. The term root of Jesse figuratively stands for me, the Messiah. The “root” of a family is its progenitor. Jesse was King David’s father. I was descended from the line of Jesse and his son David. When Isaiah began to prophesy, there was a current hope among the people that a glorious earthly king—the Messiah—would assume the throne of David. Through the prophet Samuel, God had promised David that his offspring would establish an eternal kingdom. In Revelation 22:16  it also says: I, Jesus, have sent my angel to give you this testimony for the churches. I am the Root and the Offspring of David, and the bright Morning Star”. Apostle Paul makes it also clear, as written in Acts 13:22–23 that I am the “root of Jesse,” God’s promise to David: “After removing Saul, he made David their king. God testified concerning him: ‘I have found David son of Jesse, a man after my own heart; he will do everything I want him to do.’ From this man’s descendants, God has brought to Israel the Savior Jesus, as he promised”. 19 It was foreseen in the Old Testament that my ministry would be miraculous. I made the blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosy were cleansed, the deaf heard, the dead were raised, and I proclaimed the good news to the poor. That was reported in Matthew 11:2–6, and prophesized in Isaiah 35:5–6: Then will the eyes of the blind be opened and the ears of the deaf unstopped. Then will the lame leap like a deer, and the mute tongue shout for joy. Water will gush forth in the wilderness and streams in the desert. 20 I had a forerunner, John the Baptist. As is written in John 1:23, he said:  I am the voice of one calling in the wilderness, “Make straight the way for the Lord”. He fulfilled the prophecy in Isaiah 40:3–4:  A voice of one calling: ‘In the wilderness prepare the way for the Lord; make straight in the desert a highway for our God. Every valley shall be raised up, every mountain and hill made low; the rough ground shall become level, the rugged places a plain'”.   John the Baptist started the ball rolling. He didn't dress like the religious elite - he wore camel hair clothes. He didn't hang out in the religious centers of Jerusalem - he preached in the wilderness. It took a radical man to let the people know that radical change was coming. It was because of my father's mercy that he sent John the Baptist to prepare my way. 28  Matthew reported in 11:10–15 what i said about John the Baptist:  “Truly I tell you, among those born of women there has not risen anyone greater than John the Baptist, yet whoever is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than he.  John was great because he was the prophet pointing unambiguously to me as the Messiah. But now that the New Covenant has been inaugurated, and I died, rose, and ascended to heaven, the least of those that are born again, saved, and part of the body of Christ, are able to be a greater witness than John.  21 I was the chosen one to be the Messiah, in which my father takes a special delight. I took a servant's role and was sustained by my Father. The effectiveness of my sacrifice on the cross, the forgiveness of sins was extended to the gentiles, so I could make and declare just all those that would repent, believe, and follow me. It is written in Matthew 12:15–21:  In his name the nations will put their hope.'” This is a fulfillment of the prophecy in Isaiah 42:1–4: “Here is my servant, whom I uphold, my chosen one in whom I delight; I will put my Spirit on him, and he will bring justice to the nations. He will not shout or cry out, or raise his voice in the streets. A bruised reed he will not break, and a smoldering wick he will not snuff out. In faithfulness he will bring forth justice he will not falter or be discouraged till he establishes justice on earth. In his teaching, the islands will put their hope”. 

I taught in the synagogue of my hometown, Nazareth.  



This showed that I was the one who fulfilled God’s promise given to Isaiah 61:1: “The Spirit of the Sovereign Lord is on me, because the Lord has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim freedom for the captives and release from darkness for the prisoners”

I unrolled the scroll containing the Book of the Prophet Isaiah, to read the appointed reading for the day. I found the right spot and read: “The Spirit of the Lord is on me because he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor.” after I had read the Scripture, I sat down.  Unlike today, back then, someone usually sat down to preach, not stand up. So, when I did sit down, I was letting everyone know that I was getting ready to address them. I didn’t finish the final verse that I was reading from Isaiah. That could be why all the people fixed their eyes on me so intently. I finished speaking the Scriptures with: “To proclaim the year of the Lord’s favor.” I cut that verse off in mid-sentence. The rest of the verse reads, “…and the Day of vengeance of our God.” It’s no wonder the whole synagogue stared at me. Like us, they had a cycle of readings. So, over the years, people knew what text to expect on a given day. And I did read the text. But I stopped, not finishing the last verse. So, they waited to hear what I would say since I took the liberty of not completing the assigned text for the day. I preached: “Today this scripture is fulfilled in your hearing.” What Isaiah foretold long ago, was then taking place before them. The Holy Spirit had anointed me, whom they knew since childhood, to proclaim the good news, to release those held in bondage, and to proclaim the Lord’s favor. In that passage, we find the central message that I preached throughout Judea and Galilee. I proclaimed the good news, liberty, and recovery of sight, and the year of the Lord’s favor. But I stopped short of “the Day of vengeance.” Why did I do that? That Day of Vengeance will come later, at the end of time, for those who don’t believe that I am the prophesied Messiah. That’s when I will return to judge the living and the dead. But that day, I came to release prisoners from bondage and set them free.  The bondage that God the Father sent me to undo is that ancient slavery, which has captured all creation because of sin. It is the bondage to sin and death, to corruption and decay. It’s a bondage that keeps the entire world cut off from God the father. I came to set all free from sin—both physically and spiritually. Sin’s corruption takes our entire person hostage—both body and spirit. That’s why we get sick. That’s why some people are hateful and wicked. That’s why it feels that a never-ending line of troubles in this world, for sin has corrupted and enslaved all creation. The apostle  John says in 1 John 1:8, “If we claim to be without sin, we are deceiving ourselves, and the truth is not in us”. I have broken those binding chains. I have emptied sin of its condemning strength. I have broken your shackles because, by God’s grace, you have died to sin with me in your baptism. You are born from above to new life by the gift of the Holy Spirit. And the Holy Spirit gives you the gift of my Life—to you, so you can belong to God and be part of his family, and He can be yours, into eternity. How invigorating! But you still need to be careful. For we haven’t yet reached the end of time, when i return on the Last Day. And so, sin and death still exist because I have not returned to create a new heaven and earth. And so, there is still constant combat against sin’s corruption and the power of death. Those evil forces are always trying to invade and re-kidnap, as happened in Eden. And these evil, demonic powers have a foothold through the fallen flesh, from which we nobody will be free until the sinful flesh is no more. And so, those that are born again receive a new heart—a heart after God’s own heart. And this is because God has brought those that belong to Him into a new reality—the reality of being a new man in Christ.  I am the New Man—the New Adam, the Son of God. If you have died with me,  you are now alive in me by the Holy Spirit. This faith has within it a worldview from which you live. Your entire life here is an unfolding, of learning, what it means is that you are God's child. What I have for you is beyond your understanding. So you may greet that Day with joy, i have come to proclaim your liberty and freedom, your forgiveness, hope, and joy. I proclaim and give you such life. And I lay it all before you as a gift. Indeed, today is the acceptable year of the Lord.  For in this way my father loved you, so that he gave me,  his one and only Son, in order that if you believe in me, you will not perish, but will have eternal life. Have you not received me yet as your Lord and savior, and want to do it right now? If so, please watch on the YouTube Channel The God Talk,  the video: The message of salvation through Jesus Christ. Blessings.







All the gifts and graces of the Spirit were upon me and on me, without measure. By me, sinners may be loosed from the bonds of guilt, and by my Spirit and grace from the bondage of corruption. I came to bring light to those that sat in the dark, and by the power of my grace, to give sight to those that were blind. Let sinners attend to my invitation when liberty is thus proclaimed. You may well wonder that i should speak such words of grace to such graceless wretches as mankind.

Jesus unrolls the scroll containing the Book of the Prophet Isaiah, to read the appointed reading for the day. He finds the right spot and reads: “The Spirit of the Lord is on me because he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor.” And after Jesus had read the Scripture, He sat down.


22. Jesus would be despised and rejected

Prophecy: “He was despised and rejected by mankind, a man of suffering, and familiar with pain. Like one from whom people hide their faces he was despised, and we held him in low esteem” (Isaiah 53:3).
Fulfillment: “All the people in the synagogue were furious when they heard this. They got up, drove him out of the town, and took him to the brow of the hill on which the town was built, in order to throw him off the cliff” (Luke 4:28–29).

23. Jesus will set the captives free


Prophecy: “The Spirit of the Sovereign Lord is on me, because the Lord has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim freedom for the captives and release from darkness for the prisoners” (Isaiah 61:1)
Fulfillment: “He went to Nazareth, where he had been brought up, and on the Sabbath day he went into the synagogue, as was his custom. He stood up to read, and the scroll of the prophet Isaiah was handed to him. Unrolling it, he found the place where it is written: ‘The Spirit of the Lord is on me, because he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind,
to set the oppressed free, to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favor.’ “Then he rolled up the scroll, gave it back to the attendant and sat down. The eyes of everyone in the synagogue were fastened on him. He began by saying to them, ‘Today this scripture is fulfilled in your hearing'” (Luke 4:16–21).

24. The Messiah will have a throne that is everlasting

Prophecy: “In my vision at night I looked, and there before me was one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven. He approached the Ancient of Days and was led into his presence. He was given authority, glory and sovereign power; all nations and peoples of every language worshiped him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion that will not pass away, and his kingdom is one that will never be destroyed” (Daniel 7:13–14).
Fulfillment: “You will conceive and give birth to a son, and you are to call him Jesus. He will be great and will be called the Son of the Most High. The Lord God will give him the throne of his father David, and he will reign over Jacob’s descendants forever; his kingdom will never end” (Luke 1:31–33).

25. The Messiah will bring an end to sin

Prophecy: “Seventy ‘sevens’ are decreed for your people and your holy city to finish transgression, to put an end to sin, to atone for wickedness, to bring in everlasting righteousness, to seal up vision and prophecy and to anoint the Most Holy Place” (Daniel 9:24).
Fulfillment: “Know and understand this: From the time the word goes out to restore and rebuild Jerusalem until the Anointed One, the ruler, comes, there will be seven ‘sevens,’ and sixty-two ‘sevens.’ It will be rebuilt with streets and a trench, but in times of trouble. After the sixty-two ‘sevens,’ the Anointed One will be put to death and will have nothing. The people of the ruler who will come will destroy the city and the sanctuary. The end will come like a flood: War will continue until the end, and desolations have been decreed” (Daniel 9:25–26). “Grace and peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ, who gave himself for our sins to rescue us from the present evil age, according to the will of our God and Father, to whom be glory for ever and ever. Amen” (Galatians 1:3–5).

26. Jerusalem will rejoice as the Messiah comes to her upon a donkey

Prophecy: “Rejoice greatly, Daughter Zion! Shout, Daughter Jerusalem! See, your king comes to you, righteous and victorious, lowly and riding on a donkey, on a colt, the foal of a donkey” (Zechariah 9:9).
Fulfillment: “A very large crowd spread their cloaks on the road, while others cut branches from the trees and spread them on the road. The crowds that went ahead of him and those that followed shouted, ‘Hosanna to the Son of David!’ ‘Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord!’ ‘Hosanna in the highest heaven!’ “When Jesus entered Jerusalem, the whole city was stirred and asked, ‘Who is this?'” (Matthew 21:8–10)

27. He will be betrayed for 30 pieces of silver

Prophecy: “I told them, ‘If you think it best, give me my pay; but if not, keep it.’ So they paid me thirty pieces of silver. “And the Lord said to me, ‘Throw it to the potter’—the handsome price at which they valued me! So I took the thirty pieces of silver and threw them to the potter at the house of the Lord” (Zechariah 11:12–13).
Fulfillment: “The chief priests picked up the coins and said, ‘It is against the law to put this into the treasury, since it is blood money.’ So they decided to use the money to buy the potter’s field as a burial place for foreigners. That is why it has been called the Field of Blood to this day. Then what was spoken by Jeremiah the prophet was fulfilled: ‘They took the thirty pieces of silver, the price set on him by the people of Israel, and they used them to buy the potter’s field, as the Lord commanded me'” (Matthew 27:6–10).

28. Christ’s forerunner would come in the spirit of Elijah

Prophecy: “See, I will send the prophet Elijah to you before that great and dreadful day of the Lord comes. He will turn the hearts of the parents to their children, and the hearts of the children to their parents; or else I will come and strike the land with total destruction” (Malachi 4:5–6).
Fulfillment: “This is the one about whom it is written: ‘I will send my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way before you.’ “Truly I tell you, among those born of women there has not risen anyone greater than John the Baptist; yet whoever is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than he. From the days of John the Baptist until now, the kingdom of heaven has been subjected to violence, and violent people have been raiding it. For all the Prophets and the Law prophesied until John. And if you are willing to accept it, he is the Elijah who was to come. Whoever has ears, let them hear” (Matthew 11:10–15).

What I have for you is beyond your understanding. So you may greet that Day with joy, I have come to proclaim your liberty and freedom, your forgiveness, hope, and joy. I proclaim and give you such life. And I lay it all before you as a gift. Indeed, today is the acceptable year of the Lord. Through my coming, I provided a solution for the problem of the sin of the world and was punished in your place. “For God so loved you, that He gave me, His only begotten Son, that if you believe in me, you shall not perish but have everlasting life. I want to save you from the judgment you deserve. Have you received me as your Lord and savior? If not, and if you want to, watch on the YouTube channel the video: The message of salvation through Jesus Christ. Blessings, and please subscribe.

I, the Lord, will give here a commentary to the messianic verse Genesis 12.3

The first chapters in Genesis expose how the world devolved into a pattern of sin and judgment. The fall of Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, the flood, and the tower of Babel demonstrates this vividly. God set in motion His pre-ordained plan for a new creation where I, the eternal Son of God would become the last Adam - through Whom all the families of the earth would be blessed. I would come to earth as Emmanuel which means 'God-with-us' and would be born into the human race as the Son of Man. I, the eternal Son of God would be given, by my Father, to be born as the perfect, representative Man - in order to become the federal head of a new creation. And unlike the first Adam - as the last Adam, I would not fail. In Genesis 12, “God addresses the problem of sin and plan of reconciliation of humanity to himself starting with the person of Abraham and the promise given to him in Genesis 12.3: And I will bless you, and through you, all families of the earth shall be blessed. This promise of spiritual blessing will extend to the Gentiles; they are the ones to whom Abram will also be a blessing. This is a promise that goes beyond Israel and is reaffirmed in the Abrahamic Covenant more than once: to Abraham in Genesis 22.18  And in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed; because thou hast obeyed my voice. To Isaac, Abrahams son, the Lord said in Genesis chapter 26.2-5: Go not down into Egypt; dwell in the land which I shall tell thee of: Sojourn in this land, and I will be with thee and will bless thee; for unto thee, and unto thy seed, I will give all these countries, and I will perform the oath which I sware unto Abraham thy father; And I will make thy seed to multiply as the stars of heaven, and will give unto thy seed all these countries; and in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed; Because that Abraham obeyed my voice, and kept my charge, my commandments, my statutes, and my laws. And further, to Jacob, in Genesis 28.14, God spoke: And thy seed shall be as the dust of the earth, and thou shalt spread abroad to the west, and to the east, and to the north, and to the south: and in thee and in thy seed shall all the families of the earth be blessed. This blessing to the Nations is to be accomplished through me as the Messianic Seed of Abraham because it will be through me as the Messiah that the Gentiles will receive their spiritual blessings, as pointed out in Isaiah 42.6: I the LORD have called thee in righteousness, and will hold thine hand, and will keep thee, and give thee for a covenant of the people, for a light of the Gentiles; and Isaiah 49.6:  I will also give thee for a light to the Gentiles, that thou mayest be my salvation unto the end of the earth. I am the fulfillment of God's promise to Abraham. As my apostle, John,  reported in John chapter  8.56, when I responded to the Jews: Your father Abraham rejoiced at the thought of seeing my day; he saw it and was glad.' And the apostle Paul wrote to the Galatians in  3.8: What's more, the Scriptures looked forward to this time when God would declare the Gentiles to be righteous because of their faith. God proclaimed this good news to Abraham long ago when he said, 'All nations will be blessed through you.' And Galatians  3.27-29: For all of you who were baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ. There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.  If you belong to Christ, then you are Abraham’s seed, and heirs according to the promise. If you have not received me, Jesus Christ,  as your Lord and Savior, and want to be blessed as it was promised to Abraham, you will find on this channel on YouTube, The God Talk, the pinned video: The message of salvation through Jesus Christ. There you will find the instructions on how to be saved. Blessings.

After I resurrected on Sunday, the third day after the crucifixion, later that day, I met two of my disciples on the road from Jerusalem to Emmaus, Cleopas, and Luke, I joined them and walked most of the seven miles with them: On that opportunity, beginning with Moses and with all the prophets, I explained to them the things concerning myself in all the Scriptures. You would certainly have loved to be there and listen to my exposition, together with the disciples, wouldn't you?  So I will do it here.  Genesis 49:10 clarifies that the Messiah would come from Judah. Judah is part of my genealogy, as written in Luke 3:33. I would furthermore be a son of David, and be conceived by a virgin, as it's written in Isaiah 7:14: The virgin will conceive and give birth to a son and will call him Immanuel. This was fulfilled, as its written in  Luke 1:35: The angel answered to Mary: “The Holy Spirit will come on you, and the power of the Highest will overshadow you. So the holy one to be born will be called the Son of God. This was a unique credential of my being the Messiah. I was not born from a virgin because that would be the only possible way for me from inheriting a sinful nature. Nowhere in the Bible does it ever say that the sin-nature is transmitted through the male-only. Sometimes, the Bible emphasizes the female side of it more than the male side. For example, in Psalm 51:5 David said: And in sin did my mother conceive me. In reality, sinful human nature is transmitted through both the father and the mother. What kept me from inheriting a sinful nature was not the absence of the male seed, but rather that, which is stated in verse 35 as “the overshadowing of the Holy Spirit.” My father, being sovereign, was not confronted with only one way of doing things. If he wanted to, He could have produced a sinless being using both the male seed and the female egg. The reason for the Virgin Birth is that this was the way my father chose to do it, not because this was the only way He could do it.  In Micah 5:2 my birthplace was prophesized: But you, Bethlehem Ephrathah, though you are small among the clans of Judah, out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times. I was born in Bethlehem.  King Herod, or Herod the Great, as he liked to be called) was a cruel, power-hungry ruler who destroyed anyone he feared was trying to topple him from his throne. He even killed several members of his own family because he thought they were plotting against him. When a group of wise men (or scholars) came to Jerusalem shortly after i was born they asked one question: Where could they find the newly-born king of the Jews? They added, as written in Matthew 2:2: “We have seen His star in the east and have come to worship him”. When word of this reached King Herod, he sent for them and urged them to find the child, so he could worship him, too. But Herod was lying. His real goal was to destroy the child, fearing (illogically) that in time I, Jesus,  would take over his throne. God warned the wise men of Herod’s plot in a dream, and after Herod realized they had evaded him, he ordered the death of every child in Bethlehem below the age of two. My parents, Joseph and Mary took me and fled to Egypt at the command of my father as reported in Matthew 2:13-14. This confirms the prophecy in Hosea 11:1: When Israel was a child, I loved him, and out of Egypt I called my son. I appeared to destroy the devil’s work. That was already prophesized in Genesis 3:15 where it says: And I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and hers; he will crush your head, and you will strike his heel. I defeated the work of Satan on the Cross, and I will ultimately destroy Satan in the forthcoming future. If sin had not entered the world, there would never have been a need for me to come to redeem the world. Hebrews 2:5–9  says that I was made a little lower than the angels. By taking upon myself sinless flesh in the Incarnation, I was made “a little lower than the heavenly beings.” I took the nature of a servant” when I incarnated to become a man. Even as the lawgiver, I subjected myself to the Law. I was rich in heaven and became poor for sake of humanity.  I did not come to be served, but to serve, and give my life as a ransom for many.  I am exalted above all angels, and one day every knee will bow at my name and every tongue will confess that I am the Lord to the glory of the Father. This is a fulfillment of Psalm 8:5–6 where it says: You have made them a little lower than the angels and crowned them with glory and honor. You made them rulers over the works of your hands; you put everything under their feet.  Psalm 40:6–8 is a prophecy foreseeing that I would be the perfect sacrifice. Sacrifice and offering you did not desire— but my ears you have opened—burnt offerings and sin offerings you did not require. Then I said, “Here I am, I have come— it is written about me in the scroll. I desire to do your will, my God; your law is within my heart.  David understood that in a relative sense, God didn’t want animal sacrifices. God wanted surrendered, willing servants.  God, rather than sacrifice, wants obedience. I obeyed, became man, and was perfectly obedient, and my obedience is credited unto all those that believe in me. My father was dissatisfied with animal sacrifices, looking forward to the Perfect Sacrifice that I would give. My dedication was to fulfill the will of my father. My sacrifice alone could do it. Matthew 13:34–35 points out that I spoke to my audience in parables, fulfilling the prophecy in Psalm 78:1–2: My people, hear my teaching; listen to the words of my mouth. I will open my mouth with a parable; I will utter hidden things, things from of old. My servant Isaiah already foresaw, and prophesized in  Isaiah 6:9–10: Be ever hearing, but never understanding; be ever seeing, but never perceiving.’ Make the heart of this people calloused; make their ears dull and close their eyes. Otherwise they might see with their eyes, hear with their ears, understand with their hearts, and turn and be healed. To those that I preached, they did not understand, as reported in Matthew 13:13–15: This people’s heart has become calloused; they hardly hear with their ears, and they have closed their eyes. Otherwise, they might see with their eyes, hear with their ears, understand with their hearts and turn, and I would heal them. In parables, i made known the mysterious manifold wisdom of God – things that had been prior hidden for ages and generations now made known to the saints. The mystery of the Gospel had been hidden – in my purposes and decrees for ages past. Grace was now being poured out and the unsearchable riches in me were becoming known to those who had ears to hear.

Paul tells in Ephesians 3:8-9 his like calling: Although I am less than the least of all God's people, this grace was given me: to preach to the Gentiles the unsearchable riches of Christ, and to make plain to everyone the administration of this mystery, which for ages past was kept hidden in God, who created all things. And in 1 Corinthians 20-21, i wrote: God Himself provides all revelation – all means of knowing Him. Our understanding comes not from our futile pursuits. Obtaining spiritual knowledge however does require our diligence but it is a diligence and desire to hear from Him – to seek Him with ears prepared and attentive to listen and respond. God has called every believer to go further still in our depth and knowledge of Him – we were not saved for superficiality. It is our privilege to delve into a richer and fuller knowledge of Him Who is boundless in His wisdom. Every sliver of knowledge obtained also carries with it the call to its obedience.

In Jeremiah it says:  “Then you will call upon me and come and pray to me, and I will listen to you. You will seek me and find me when you seek me with all your heart. I will be found by you,” declares the LORD. I did not reveal myself to my disciples while they were on the road. Instead, i waited until they arrived at their destination and were relaxed, preparing to enjoy a meal, before i allowed their eyes to be opened. This parallels the discernment process of many. Sometimes, when you cannot understand something, you gather information. Then it must settle within your heart. Only when you have fully “digested” what you learned, and allowed it to sink in, does the truth come out. Have you found me? Have you received me as your Lord and Savior? If you want to know how you can do it, watch the video on this channel: The message of salvation through Jesus Christ. Blessings, and please subscribe to this channel.

And in sin did my mother conceive me. In reality, sinful human nature is transmitted through both the father and the mother. What kept me from inheriting a sinful nature was not the absence of the male seed, but rather that, which is stated in verse 35 as “the overshadowing of the Holy Spirit.” My father, being sovereign, was not confronted with only one way of doing things. If he wanted to, He could have produced a sinless being using both the male seed and the female egg. The reason for the Virgin Birth is that this was the way my father chose to do it, not because this was

Do you know what I meant when I said I am the Alpha and the Omega?  this is another way of saying: I am the beginning and the end the first and the last but I am really saying so much more
I am declaring: I am God. I am that part of God called the word. The reference to the first and the last comes from the book of the prophet Isaiah.  Isaiah 44:6 says:  thus saith the lord the king of Israel and his redeemer the lord of hosts:  I am the first and I am the last and beside me, there is no god.  So being the first and the last I claim to be God. Now that we have clarified who
the first and last is let's move on when John wrote in the beginning was the word
he's trying to draw attention back to the beginning of the
book of Genesis for the beginning was when God created all things by his word
as you may be aware most of the New Testament was originally written in the
ancient Greek however I spoke Aramaic so while John writes in
Revelation:  I am the Alpha and the Omega what I would say in Hebrew or
Aramaic would be:  I am the Aleph and the TAV.  alpha is the first letter of the
Greek alphabet and Omega is the last but the first letter of the Hebrew is the
aleph and the last is the TAV. the real essence of what I meant can
only be revealed when one translates it back into Hebrew and it's then that one
discovers a wonderful secret. This phrase did not originate with the book of
Revelation but actually comes from the very first sentence in the book of
Genesis so when I say to John:  I am the Aleph and the TAV. I am in fact clarifying
a mystery that has existed since the Torah
was first written. The first sentence of the Bible is most frequently translated:
In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.  John's Gospel also begins
with:  in the beginning and right in the middle of the first Hebrew sentence of
Genesis is an untranslated word that one only finds in the Hebrew Bible.
in fact, it is untranslatable because it is not a word at all it is simply the
Aleph and the TAV. These two letters have remained a mystery to the Jewish
scholars for years.  Actually, it is to this Aleph and TAV that I was
referring just as the book of Revelation begins and ends with me saying:  I am
the Alpha and the Omega so too does the Bible also begin with those very same
two letters that refer to the Word of God Himself. The Aleph and TAV.  John
writes: in the beginning was the word and the Word was with God and the Word was
God.  he was in the beginning with God all
things came into being through him and apart from him nothing came into being



that has come into being. I am the word of God. I am God's Word from the
first letter of the alphabet. The Aleph to the last,  the TAV.  i am right there
with God the father. In the very first sentence of Genesis. I am the Living Word of God
from Genesis to Revelation i am the mouth of God and when i speak things
are created by my words in him his life because i am the one who spoke the fathers
words and brought all into being through the power of the Holy Spirit

but that's not all. amazingly the very first Hebrew word in
Genesis depicts the whole plan of God's salvation for man the original Hebrew is
not the same as the Hebrew we have today but has evolved from Hebrew pictographs
these original Hebrew letters bring amazing insight into the meaning behind
God's words the first word in the Bible is the Hebrew word Bereshit translated
as in the beginning this is how the word Bereshit looks in the original
pictographs it's comprised of the Hebrew letters bet pictured as a house or tent
and means house as in the house of God riche is pictured as a man's head
meaning the first or highest person arleth is pictured as an ox head meaning
God and strength as in the Lord is my strength shin is pictured as two teeth
meaning to consume or destroy yond is pictured as an arm from the fist to the
elbow meaning my hand or works and staff is pictured as two crossed sticks
meaning a covenant or mark the very first two letters of Bereshit the BET
and riche form the hebrew word bar which means son as in my son the RF is God the
shin means destroyed the Yad is the hand or works and the TAF are the two crossed
sticks which mean covenant in John 2:19 Jesus said to the Jews
destroy this temple and in three days I will raise it up then the Jews said this
temple was 46 years building and will you rear it up in three days but he
spoke of the temple of his body look at the symbol for bet it is the
very house of God in the form of man the highest person and amazingly these two
letters together formed the word for son yes indeed the Son of God referred to
himself as the temple of God and clearly we can see that in the very first word
of the Bible God's wonderful plan of salvation was prepared that the son of
God would destroy the sinful works of our hands on the Covenant cross of
sticks isn't that astounding that the first word of the Bible could contain so
much truth without doubt God's plan to save man was there from the foundation
of the world and the book of Revelation 13:8 confirms this by calling Jesus the
lamb slain from the foundation of the world yes from the foundation of the
world from the first word Bereshit spoken in Genesis but there is an even
deeper meaning to the Alpha and Omega the Aleph and Tov found in the first
verse of Genesis for in the original Hebrew pictographs the Aleph or Alpha is
portrayed as an ox head meaning God and strength and the dev or Omega is the two
crossed sticks of Covenant yes in the Alpha and Omega we find the whole plan
of God that God Himself symbolized by the ox
head would make a covenant with man by the cross of sticks yes my friend God
the word became like a sacrificial animal the ox or lamb which was
slaughtered as a sin offering and he was placed on that cross of sticks the aleph
and staff the first and the last portrays the whole story of the Messiah
that God would place his sacrificial animal his strength his leader the
Messiah on a cross of sticks as a sign to mark his government with man it's
absolutely astounding that the ancient Hebrew could tell the whole story of the
Messiah in two letters and it's clear that the cross was not originally a
Roman symbol but a Hebrew symbol which meant covenant but the Jews wouldn't
know this unless they had studied the ancient Hebrew letter Tov when God told
Moses to write The Aleph and Tov in the book of Genesis and told the prophet
Isaiah that he was the first and the last God Himself was declaring you see
this Jesus he is the Messiah who is going to die on the cross for the sinful
works of your hands he is the creator who was in the beginning he is the
perfect sacrificial animal placed on the cross of sticks
he is my word he is my covenant he is my signature my Alpha and Omega and he is
your salvation so now we understand why John wrote in
the beginning was the word and the Word was with God and the Word was God he was
in the beginning with God so the Bible declares but without the one called the
word nothing would have come into existence for the word is the part of
God which spoke all into being in John 14 seven Phillips said to Jesus Lord
show us the father and it is sufficient for us jesus said to him have I been
with you for so long a time and yet you have not known me Philip he that has
seen me has seen the father so how can you say show us the father
Jesus declared that seeing him was the same as seeing the father because Jesus
himself is the exact image of the Father

In chapter 22, verse 12, one of the last verses of the New Testament, it says:  I am the Alpha and the Omega, the First and the Last, the Beginning and the End. Do you know what I meant when I said I am the Alpha and the Omega? This is another way of saying: I am the beginning and the end the first and the last but I am really saying so much more I am declaring: I am God. I am that part of God called the word. The reference to the first and the last comes from the book of the prophet Isaiah.  Isaiah 44:6 says:  thus saith the lord the king of Israel and his redeemer the lord of hosts:  I am the first and I am the last and beside me, there is no god.  So being the first and the last I claim to be God. Now that we have clarified who the first and last is let's move on.  John wrote:  In the beginning was the word. He's trying to draw attention back to the beginning of the book of Genesis for the beginning was when God created all things by his word. As you may be aware most of the New Testament was originally written in ancient Greek.  However, I spoke Aramaic so while John writes in Revelation:  I am the Alpha and the Omega what I would say in Hebrew or Aramaic would be:  I am the Aleph and the TAV.  Alpha is the first letter of the Greek alphabet and Omega is the last but the first letter of the Hebrew is the aleph and the last is the TAV. the real essence of what I meant is revealed when one translates it back into Hebrew and it's then that you discover a wonderful secret. This phrase did not originate with the book of Revelation but actually comes from the very first sentence in the book of Genesis. So when I say to John:  I am the Aleph and the TAV. I am in fact clarifying a mystery that has existed since the Torah was first written. The first sentence of the Bible is most frequently translated:  In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.  John's Gospel also begins with:  in the beginning and right in the middle of the first Hebrew sentence of Genesis is an untranslated word that one only finds in the Hebrew Bible. In fact, it is untranslatable because it is not a word at all it is simply the Aleph and the TAV. The literal word for word rendering of the verse in Hebrew, when reading from right to left in English, is "in beginning" created, Elohim, 'et' (Aleph-Tav in bold) the heavens and 'et' (Aleph-Tav in bold) the earth." I am also "The Aleph and the Tav" which is the equivalent of all of these titles. "Aleph" and "tav," recall, are the first and last, and the beginning and end of the Hebrew aleph-bet. Just as alpha and omega are the first and last, beginning and end of the Greek alphabet, we have the Bible beginning with the Aleph and Tav and ending with the Alpha and Omega. These two letters have remained a mystery to Jewish scholars. Actually, it is to this Aleph and TAV that I was referring just as the book of Revelation begins and ends with me saying:  I am the Alpha and the Omega. The Bible begins with those two letters that refer to the Word of God. The Aleph and TAV. John writes: in the beginning was the word and the Word was with God and the Word was God.  he was in the beginning with God all things came into being through him and apart from him nothing came into being. I am the word of God. I am God's Word from the first letter of the alphabet. The Aleph to the last,  the TAV.  I was right there with the father. In the very first sentence of Genesis. I am the Living Word of God. From Genesis to Revelation I am the spoken word of God and when I speak things are created by my words.  In him, I am the one who spoke the father's words and brought all into being through the power of the Holy Spirit. In Colossians 1:16-17, the apostle Paul writes: For by him (I, the Lord, are referenced earlier in the chapter) were all things created, that are in heaven, and that are in earth, visible and invisible, whether they be thrones, or dominions, or principalities, or powers: all things were created by him, and for him: And he is before all things, and by him, all things consist. I who know everything planned and purposed that you might be allowed to live with me eternally. The choice is yours as to whether you harden your heart or hear my voice and seek me while I may be found. Have you received me as your Redeemer, Savior, Lord, and king? Being a Christian is not about religion, but about having a personal relationship with me. You are greatly loved and precious. If you want to become a born-again Christian and receive me, watch the video: The message of salvation through Jesus Christ, on the YouTube channel: The God talk. Blessings.

The assertion that biodiversity is due to evolution is held on faith by its supporters since the crucial evidence to back up the claim is lacking. Natural selection is not powerful enough to cause huge change. to generate large sections of brand new genetic codified information, which would be necessary to generate entirely new taxonomic families. The science paper: The fundamental theorem of natural selection with mutations from 2017 says, and i quote: ...THE VAST MAJORITY OF MUTATIONS ARE DELETERIOUS. THIS IS ONE OF THE MOST WELL-ESTABLISHED PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS, SUPPORTED BY BOTH MOLECULAR AND QUANTITATIVE-GENETIC DATA. A great deal of evidence from several sources strongly suggests that the overall effects of mutations are to REDUCE FITNESS." You can beat consensus in science with one fact. But you can't convince an idiot about Gods existence with thousand facts. Much of the "settled science" that even geologists and other degree-holding "scientists" accept is really not established fact, it's only most "widely accepted hypothesis", and some actually ignore evidence that might support other and better inferences from available data and evidence, because that indicates something other than the "consensus opinion" on a subject. Never mind that almost all the most groundbreaking and world-changing scientific and mathematical breakthroughs from Galileo to Newton, to Pasteur, to Pascal and Einstein, etcetera, were made by people who rejected conventional wisdom or went well beyond what "everybody knows.

Much of the "settled science" that even geologists and other degree-holding "scientists" accept is really not established fact, it's only most "widely accepted hypothesis", and some actually ignore evidence that might support other and better inferences from available data and evidence, because that indicates something other than the "consensus opinion" on a subject. Never mind that almost all the most groundbreaking and world-changing scientific and mathematical breakthroughs from Galileo to Newton, to Pasteur, to Pascal and Einstein, etcetera, were made by people who rejected conventional wisdom or went well beyond what "everybody knows.

Atheists and agnostics spend their entire time, trying to convince themselves, and theists, that believing in God is irrational, and come up with many arguments to support their views. Some of their arguments are exposed in this video. What they rarely do, however, is scrutinize the worldview that the natural world is all there is, and its implications. Would they do it with the same dedication, that they try to refute theistic beliefs, and permit the evidence to lead wherever it is, I doubt, they would remain atheists any longer. While they present one of their chief arguments, evolution by natural selection, they for the most part, entirely ignore to ask themselves, if not God, what selection mechanism was in place to get to life, and evolution, in the first place. Natural selection works when there is life, and self-replication. Not before. Many things had to be selected and instantiated, to get there. The precise, finely adjusted expansion rate of the Big bang had to be selected. So the fundamental forces of the universe and the right coupling constants, the right-sized quarks and composition to have the right protons, neutrons, and electrons, to have stable atoms, the right fine-tune parameters that go into the hundreds to have a life-permitting universe, in special the earth, the electromagnetic spectrum, and water. The right nucleobase isometries to have Watson-Crick base-pairing, and stable DNA All the functional parts for the first living cell, the right genome, proteome, metabolome, and interactome, before you get to the first free-living, self-replicating cell, where SUPPOSEDLY evolution and natural selection could theoretically kick in, and start doing its business. The problem is: Mindless nature has no goals, no purpose, no will, no foresight, and no intention to bring forward life. The lack of an alternative viable possible plausible, probable alternative selection mechanism replacing an intelligent mind with intentions means a checkmate for naturalism. Thanks for watching, and please subscribe.


There is more evidence for me, Jesus Christ, than combined by all world religions: My word, the Bible,  and external reasons provide powerful, undeniable evidence that demonstrates beyond a reasonable doubt that I am who I said to be and that my word is true.  Theology and philosophy, both lead to me. I am an eternal, self-existent, omnipresent transcendent, conscious, intelligent, personal, and moral Creator. The Cosmological argument leads to the God of the Bible.  The Old Testament is a catalog prophecy that has been fulfilled through me, my mission, death, and resurrection that were foretold with specificity. Archaeology demonstrates that all events described in the Bible are historical facts. Historical evidence corroborates that I really did come to this earth, and really did physically rise from the dead.  There are many testimonies of me doing miracles still today, and I appear to people all over the globe, still today. The signs of the end times that I foretold in my word, in special in revelation, are occurring in front of your eyes. New world order, Israel as a nation, microchip implant in the working, and so forth. I left also an image on my burial cloth, and nobody has been able to explain how a forger could have made it. I used high-power of vacuum-ultraviolet radiation that produced a discoloration on the uppermost surface of the Shroud’s fibrils (without scorching it), which gave rise to a perfect three-dimensional negative image of both the frontal and dorsal parts of my body wrapped in it.

If logic does not account for justifiable special pleading then such logic is clearly flawed. Of course, an Infinite Creator Who created everything would involve a justifiable special pleading. Such a Creator would not be like the rest of us. It is as simple as seeing the difference between an Infinite Being (notice I didn't say "existence") and billions of "finite beings."
The One Infinite Being is clearly different. The One Infinite Being Who created all existence is quite different than those finite beings who are created by such Being. This is why we have something as basic as justifiable special pleading to account for this every clear difference between an Infinite Creator Who created everything.... and all other finite existences.
If a multiverse exists, there is one, where I am richer than the 1000 richest billionaires together, where I play better football than Neymar and Messi together. Where I win at any sport competition. Where I can time travel, surrounded always by 70 virgins. Where there are billions of habitable planets, and I have spaceships to visit all of them. All habitants on each planet regard me as their king, and there is an interplanetary internet. Hail the multiverse. Hail the new theory of science.

The Multiverse should be shaved with Occam's razor. We don't need it to explain reality, it's only advanced to keep from having to turn to God. It's naturalistic so it's an arbitrary necessity at best. Arbitrary necessitates are logical impossibilities, contingent things jumped up to the level of necessity to answer a God argument. It's not we are going to disprove the unnecessary entity but we are going refrain from advancing it's existence as an assumption until such a time that real empirical evidence makes it necessary. Therefore, Multiverse should be taken out of the issues of God arguments.




Claiming that God is eternal, is special pleading.

God condoned slavery and genocide, and God drowned babies.  There is so much evil in the Bible. Look at the religious leaders and their hypocritical behavior, and the negative influence of religion in society.

we don't know how the physical world came to be, nor life, but that science is working on it, and one day, will find out." Demonstrate that God exists.

They think all day about the apparent inconsistencies in the Bible, and then challenge believers on it.  They praise the freedom and the feeling of having removed their bondages from religion. They point out, how religion has penetrated the secular state, and how imposing laws based on religious moral duties is bad for society. They accuse how religion has promoted wars in the past, and that the world would be better if freed from religion.

Evolution is a theory and a fact,  natural selection has been observed, there is tons of evidence corroborating it. And there is consensus in science.   The universe and the earth are billions of years old, young earth creationism is ridiculous and laughable.  We are on the side of reason and science, and not religion superstition, and magic. Noah's flood did never happen. A God that is omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent. cannot logically exist

There is no evidence for the historical existence and resurrection of Jesus. And even if he existed, he might have been a  good man, but God? No way. The Shroud of Turin is a forgery from the middle ages, from the 14th century. Its not the burial cloth of Jesus. Pascal's wager ?  What makes you believe that you could not end up in Allah's hell?

They put the evidence for the Bible on the same level as for Islam, Hinduism, and other religions. Amazing. They also ignore the fact that Christ's first and second command, to love God, and to love people, improves society. The values of the western world were shaped based on Christian moral values. Interestingly, those same people, turn a blind eye to their worldview based on naturalism. Whatever evidence and rational arguments are provided to them, they turn them down in a routine manner, without giving a deeper thought, or scrutinizing if the arguments made by the creationist side are valid, rational, and sound.


Atheists like to talk about how irrational faith in God is. They point out that if God created the world, it is magic. They like to mention slavery, evil in the Bible, genocide, and that God drowned babies. They like to point their fingers at the misbehavior of those that call themselves religious or believers, their leaders, and the hypocrisy that goes with it. They like to repeat how there is no evidence for God, and when pressed hard, they confess that " we don't know how the physical world came to be, nor life, but that science is working on it, and one day, will find out." - it just can't be God. They demand proof of God's existence, knowing that no theist will ever be able to give them what they are asking for, ignoring that there is no proof that the natural world is all there is, either. They think all day about the apparent inconsistencies in the Bible, and then challenge believers on it.  They praise the freedom and the feeling of having removed their bondages from religion. They point out, how religion has penetrated the secular state, and how imposing laws based on religious moral duties is bad for society. They accuse how religion has promoted wars in the past, and that the world would be better if freed from religion.  They like to talk about evolution, and natural selection, and that there is consensus in science. Evolution is a theory and a fact, and there is tons of evidence corroborating it. The universe and the earth are billions of years old, young earth creationism is ridiculous and laughable. They claim to be on the side of reason and science, and not religion superstition, and magic. Noah's flood could not have happened. Some go that far as to claim, that God cannot logically exist, pointing to the problems that go with the claim that God is omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent.

When they don't talk about religion, but the person of Jesus, the effort goes to deny his historical existence and resurrection. If they don't endorse the mythicist position, they might even agree that he was a good man, but God? No way. The Shroud of Turin, of course, so they say, is a forgery from the middle ages. Since they cannot blame Jesus for any moral misbehavior, they like to remain silent in that regard. They also ignore the fact that Christ's first and second command, to love God, and to love people, improves society. The values of the western world were shaped based on Christian moral values. When mentioning Pascal's wager, the answer immediately goes: What makes you believe that you could not end up in Allah's hell? They put the evidence for the Bible on the same level as for Islam, Hinduism, and other religions. Amazing.

Interestingly, those same people, turn a blind eye to their worldview based on naturalism. Whatever evidence and rational arguments are provided to them, they turn them down in a routine manner, without giving a deeper thought, or scrutinizing if the arguments made by the creationist side are valid, rational, and sound.

"The make of" In this video, you can have an idea of how much work it goes to get to the accurate image of the man on the Shroud.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g5CY9xbpCM8

Could the Shroud be a forgery?

https://reasonandscience.catsboard.com/t1688-the-shroud-of-turin-extraordinary-evidence-of-christ-s-resurrection#7128


Key points why the Shroud is not a forgery:

1. We have good evidence that the Shroud existed prior to 1260, the earliest dating of the carbon C14 test from 1988. The Hungarian Pray Manuscript, or Codex, is dated 1192-95. The Codex was compiled at the ancient Benedictine monastery in Hungary. Two pen and ink drawings on one page of the Codex document the existence of the Shroud in 1192. The upper drawing is a depiction of Jesus' body being prepared for burial. Correspondences between the Pray Codex and the Shroud include: 1. Jesus is nude; 2. His hands are crossed awkwardly at the wrists, right over left (as it appears on the Shroud), covering His genitals; 3. No thumbs are visible on Jesus' hands; 4. His hands and fingers are unnaturally long; 5. Jesus is about to be wrapped in a double body length shroud and 6. Red marks on Jesus' scalp and forehead are in the same position as the bloodstains (including the "reversed 3") on the Shroud. In the lower drawing an angel is showing three women disciples Jesus' empty tomb symbolised by a sarcophagus with an open lid. Correspondences between this lower drawing and the Shroud include: 7. The sarcophagus lid has a herringbone weave pattern; 8. Red zigzags match the inverted V-shaped blood trickles down the Shroud man's arms and 9. L-shaped patterns of tiny circles in the herringbone weave of the sarcophagus lid match the `poker holes' on the Shroud. It is inconceivable that all these detailed links with the Shroud, several of which are found nowhere else, could have occurred on a single manuscript page by chance.

2. Christ Pantocrator, St Catherine's monastery, Sinai Dated c. 550, is nearly perfectly congruent to the Shroud-face, for example the high right eyebrow, the hollow right cheek, and the garment neckline. Using his polarized image overlay technique, Dr Alan Whanger found over 200 points of congruence between this icon and the Shroud. Even creases and wrinkles on the Shroud cloth have been rendered by the artist. Flower images in the halo around the head (nimbus) of this icon are found at the same locations on the Shroud. The artist has even rendered the xray images of the Shroud man's teeth as chapped lips! This means that this icon must have been copied directly from the Mandylion/Shroud in the mid-sixth century and so, once again, refutes the radiocarbon dating's 14th-century date of the Shroud.

3. In the Cathedral of Oviedo, Spain, is a linen cloth called the Sudarium Christi, or the Face Cloth of Christ. The Sudarium Christi has a well-documented history.  One source traces the cloth back as far as 570 AD. According to Jewish custom, blood lost while a person was alive was not as important as blood lost after a person dies, when the death was violent. Any blood or bodily fluid which came after death had to be buried with the body, so it had to be recovered. Blood Type: The blood type of the shroud - namely AB blood - matches the blood type of the Sudarium. Dr. Alan Whanger performed Polarized Image Overlay Technology which revealed seventy points of congruence between the blood stains on the Shroud as compared to the Oviedo head cloth on the front of the head, and fifty points of congruence between the blood marks on the back of the head. There is deposit of dirt on the nose area bearing a large excess of calcium and low concentrations of strontium. This discovery matches the previous discovery of dirt on the nose of the Turin Shroud.

4. Bloodstains on the forehead of the man on the shroud, including the "reversed `3'", which perfectly show the distinction between arterial and venous blood, were discovered by Andrea Cesalpino (1519-1603) in 1593. So the unknown medieval or earlier forger of the Shroud would have discovered the circulation of blood, at least ~238 years before Cesalpino!

5. The scientific consensus is that the image was produced by something which resulted in oxidation, dehydration and conjugation of the polysaccharide structure of the microfibrils of the linen itself. There are no chemical or physical methods known which can account for the totality of the image, nor can any combination of physical, chemical, biological or medical circumstances explain the image adequately.  It's not a painting.  If this were true, it should be possible to identify the pigments used by chemical analysis, just as conservators can do for the paintings of Old Masters. But the Sturp team found no evidence of any pigments or dyes on the cloth in sufficient amounts to explain the image. Nor are there any signs of it being rendered in brush strokes. The entire image is very superficial in nature, Around 0.2 thousandths of a millimeter (about 0.000008 inches) only on the uppermost surface of the fibrils.   A burst of 34 thousand billion Watts of vacuum-ultraviolet radiation produced a discoloration on the uppermost surface of the Shroud’s fibrils (without scorching it), which gave rise to a perfect three-dimensional negative image of both the frontal and dorsal parts of the body wrapped in it.” We currently do not know of any natural cause for a human corpse producing ultraviolet radiation like this. A very short and intense flash of directional VUV radiation can color the linen fabric. The total power of the VUV radiation required for instantly color the surface of a linen corresponding to a human body of medium height, equal to the corporate body surface area = 2000 MW / cm2 x 17000 cm2 = 34 thousand billion Watts. 

6. Botanist A. Danin of The Hebrew University of Jerusalem determined the origin of the Shroud based on a comprehensive analysis of pollen taken from the Shroud and plant images associated with the Shroud. The most frequent pollen on the Shroud is identical to the most frequent pollen in sediments of the lake of Gennesaret sedimentary layers of two thousand years ago.  Danin's analysis suggests that flowers and other plant materials were placed on the Shroud of Turin, leaving pollen grains and imprints of plants and flowers on the linen cloth. Gundelia tournefortii and Zygophyllum dumosum coexist in a limited area, according to Danin, a leading authority on plants of Israel. The area is bounded by lines linking Jerusalem and Hebron in Israel and Madaba and Karak in Jordan. Frei was able to identify 49 species of plants, the pollen of which is represented in the dust of the Shroud. From the list of these plants it can be deduced that half of them do not grow in Europe, while it is present in the Middle East; in the other half, there are many Mediterranean plants. The first sampling on the Shroud On November 23, 1973, with the consent of the competent authorities, Frei took some dust samples from the Shroud’s margins using adhesive tapes. 


7. The yarn used to weave the Shroud of Turin is of very high quality, evenly spun, and it has been woven into an unusual, fancy weave for the time, called 3 to 1 herringbone twill.  There are no examples of herringbone twill weave from France up to and including the fourteenth century. The yarn was bleached before weaving rather than after the cloth was taken from the loom. This is a significant clue to the age of the cloth because medieval European linen was field bleached, a process that eliminates banding. The measurements of the Shroud are approximately 8 x 2 of the Assyrian standard cubit.  Such conformity to an exact 8 by 2 cubits is yet another piece of knowledge difficult to imagine of any medieval forger. A medieval artist/forger would be most unlikely to know the length of the standard cubit of Jesus' day, as this was only discovered by archaeologists in the 19th century!! Textile expert Mechthild Flury-Lemberg, revealed that the stitching of a seam on the Shroud that runs the entire length known as the side strip is typical of Jewish burial shrouds found in Masada, Israel.

The accusation that the Bible promotes slavery is unjustified because while the Bible
acknowledges the existence of slavery, it does not condone or promote it. In fact, the Bible
teaches that all human beings are created in the image of God and are therefore of equal
value and worth.

It is important to understand that slavery in biblical times was different from the form of
slavery that existed in the United States and other parts of the world during the colonial
period. In the Bible, slavery was often a temporary arrangement in which a person would
become a slave to pay off a debt or as a result of being taken as a prisoner of war. The Bible
also regulated the treatment of slaves, instructing slave owners to treat their slaves fairly
and humanely.

For example, in the Old Testament book of Exodus, God gives the Israelites a set of laws
that included guidelines for the treatment of slaves. In these laws, slave owners were
instructed to provide their slaves with adequate food, clothing, and shelter, and to release
them after a set period of time. In the New Testament, the apostle Paul encourages Christian
slave owners to treat their slaves with kindness and respect.

However, it is important to note that just because the Bible acknowledges the existence of
slavery and regulates its practice, does not mean that it promotes or condones it as a moral
good. In fact, the Bible contains many passages that teach the value of human freedom and dignity, and that condemn the
mistreatment of other human beings.

In summary, while the Bible does acknowledge the existence of slavery and regulates its
practice, it does not promote or condone it. The Bible teaches that all human beings are
created in the image of God and are therefore of equal value and worth, and contains many
passages that condemn the mistreat ment of other human beings.

30.  Ex. 17:6 The Spiritual Rock of Israel 1Corinthians 10:4




31.  Ex. 33:19 His Character-Merciful Luke 1:72
32.  Lev. 1:2-9 His sacrifice a sweet smelling savor unto God Ephesians 5:2
33.  Lev. 14:11 The leper cleansed-Sign to priesthood Luke 5:12-14; Acts 6:7
34.  Lev. 16:15-17 Prefigures Christ’s once-for-all death Hebrews 9:7-14
35.  Lev. 16:27 Suffering outside the Camp Matthew 27:33; Heb. 13:11, 12
36.  Lev. 17:11 The Blood-the life of the flesh Matthew 26:28; Mark 10:45
37.  Lev. 17:11 It is the blood that makes atonement Rom. 3:23-24; 1John 1:7
38.  Lev. 23:36-37 The Drink-offering: “If any man thirst” John 7:37
39.  Num. 9:12 Not a bone of Him broken John 19:31-36
40.  Num. 21:9 The serpent on a pole-Christ lifted up John 3:14-18; 12:32

The serpent that was made of bronze and elevated on a pole is a type of Christ crucified (John 3:14–15).

41.  Num. 24:17 Time: “I shall see him, but not now.” John 1:14; Galatians 4:4

M. Rydelnik (2019): Balaam’s fourth discourse is placed in the prophetic context of “the last days”—a period of time that is defined elsewhere in the Torah as a period long after the rule of David. Also noted was the literary relationship of the third and fourth discourses, a relationship that makes explicitly clear that the rising star of the fourth discourse is the coming king of the third discourse, the Messiah King of whom Jacob prophesied in Gn 49:1, 8-12. Finally, the numerous allusions to earlier promises in the Pentateuch suggest that the fourth discourse, like the third, provides the climactic expression of God’s promises to Abraham and his seed. God’s purposes for Adam, His prophecy in Gn 3:15, and His promises to Abraham would all be fulfilled in the coming Messiah. In a very real sense, Paul’s interpretation of God’s promises to the seed of Abraham in Gal 3:16 is neither novel, nor creative, but well-rooted in the promises’ literal, grammatical-historical meaning.2

42.  Deut. 18:15 “This is of a truth that prophet.” John 6:14
43.  Deut. 18:15-16 “Had ye believed Moses, ye would believe me.” John 5:45-47

J. F. Walvoord (2011): Deuteronomy 18:15–18. The coming of a great prophet, who would be like Moses, was revealed. They should listen to Him, or God would hold them to account. This was fulfilled by Christ (John 1:21–45; 6:14; Acts 3:22–23; 7:37).30

44.  Deut. 18:18 Sent by the Father to speak His word John 8:28, 29
45.  Deut. 18:19 Whoever will not hear must bear his sin Acts 3:22-23

M.Rydelnik (2019): The prophecy of the Prophet like Moses, found in Dt 18:15-19, is a messianic prophecy that speaks directly and solely of the coming Deliverer, later known as the Messiah. Isaiah’s prophecies of the Servant of the Lord provide evidence of this. Moreover, as Paul says, “when the time came to completion, God sent His Son, born of a woman, born under the law, to redeem those under the law, so that we might receive adoption as sons” (Gal 4:4-5). Isaiah’s prophecy of the coming messianic reign (Isa 2:1-4) looks to the time when the Lord will teach all the nations of His ways. Those who were the human instruments in the production of the books that comprise the Scriptures of the new covenant were not ignorant of the original intent of Torah, neither did they twist Scripture to conform to their faith in Jesus. When they saw fulfillment of this prophecy in Jesus, it was because they were reading Torah correctly. Unlike the prognostications of the false prophets, this prophecy of Moses has come true! This is a witness, not only concerning Jesus’ identity, but also Moses’ validity as a true prophet of God. The unjustified abandonment of a messianic reading of this passage not only robs believers in Jesus of precious truth, but also concedes valuable ground to those who oppose the gospel altogether. To paraphrase a remark of Allison: I do acknowledge that in more than one recent work the directly messianic interpretation of the prophecy of the Prophet like Moses has in fact, for whatever reason, suffered interment. But the burial is premature.71 It is to be hoped that a restored confidence in the directly messianic interpretation will revive the messianic hope that first animated the remnant of Israel—and later the early believers in Jesus.2

46. Deut. 21:23 Cursed is he that hangs on a tree Galatians 3:10-13

The fact that one hanging on a tree is under divine curse is symbolic of Christ’s dying on a tree bearing the sins of the world (Gal. 3:13).

47.  Joshua 5:14-15 The Captain of our salvation Hebrews 2:10
48.  Ruth 4:4-10 Christ, our kinsman, has redeemed us Ephesians 1:3-7
49.  1 Sam. 2:35 A Faithful Priest Heb. 2:17; 3:1-3, 6; 7:24-25

It ultimately will be fulfilled by Jesus Christ, who is a priest forever (Ps. 110; Heb. 5:6; Rev. 19:16).

50.  1 Sam. 2:10 Shall be an anointed King to the Lord Mt. 28:18, John 12:15
51.  2 Sam. 7:12 David’s Seed Matthew 1:1
52.  2 Sam. 7:13 His Kingdom is everlasting 2Peter 1:11
53.  2 Sam. 7:14 The Son of God Luke 1:32, Romans 1:3-4
54.  2 Sam. 7:16 David’s house established forever Luke 3:31; Rev. 22:16

M. Rydelnik (2019):  Second Samuel 7 and 1 Chronicles 17 are two of the most pivotal chapters in all of the OT; in fact, they could be referred to as the real powerhouse chapters of Scripture. Both of these chapters build upon the Abrahamic promise made first in Gn 12:1-3 and 15:1-6, and then repeated to Isaac and Jacob. Three key promises were given to Abram (later to be called Abraham) to announce to all his descendants: he and they together were to receive a “land,” a “seed” that had a male representative of the whole nation to come, and a “gospel,” that all the nations of the earth would receive through Abram and his genealogical line spiritual blessing of enormous benefit. Second Samuel 7 and 1Chr 17 set forth the Davidic covenant that leads directly to Christ the Messiah. Just as God earlier had given His everlasting promise-plan to Abraham in Gn 12 and 15, God later further built into that ancient word additional promises He then gave to David. The ancient trilogy of the promise of a “land,” a “seed,” and a “gospel” in which all nations would be blessed (Gn 12:2-3) was now to be enhanced by another trilogy of promises in this same plan of God: a “throne,” a “dynasty,” and a “kingdom” (2Sm 7:16) that would endure forever. David’s promise would conclude with Jesus the Messiah coming in His first advent to fulfill part of the divine plan, but Messiah would return a second time to bring the plan to completion. 2

J. F. Walvoord (2011): The ultimate person to sit on the throne of David would be Jesus Christ. Mary’s genealogy (Luke 3:23–38) was traced to Nathan, the son of David, instead of Solomon (v. 31). By contrast, Joseph’s genealogy was traced to Solomon (Matt. 1:2–16), whose line was cursed, but Joseph provided the legal basis for Jesus Christ to claim the throne of David. The language of the covenant in 2 Samuel 7 and 1 Chronicles 17, as it was certainly understood by David, referred to his physical lineage and to his political kingdom, not to an entity such as the elect, the saved, or the church. .30

55.  2 Ki. 2:11 The bodily ascension to heaven illustrated Luke 24:51
56.  1 Chr. 17:11 David’s Seed Matthew 1:1; 9:27
57.  1 Chr. 17:12-13 To reign on David’s throne forever Luke 1:32, 33
58.  1 Chr. 17:13 “I will be His Father, He…my Son.” Hebrews 1:5
59.  Job 9:32-33 Mediator between man and God 1 Timothy 2:5
60.  Job 19:23-27 The Resurrection predicted John 5:24-29

M.Rydelnik (2019): Written by an unknown author, and possibly the most ancient literary account in the Bible, the book of Job is a mixture of prose and poetry that both distresses and comforts the reader. Samuel E. Balentine observes, “Job is clearly part of Judaism’s Scripture.”1 Most evangelical scholars see Job as a real historical character. For instance, August H. Konkel states, “There is no reason to doubt that Job was a historical individual whose story was well known. The prophet Ezekiel (Ezk 4:14) refers to Noah, Daniel, and Job as three historical individuals.” James also recognizes Job as a historical person (Jms 5:11). Not only is Job a historical character, but also “a heroic figure in the mold of Noah and Adam … patriarchal, or better, prepatriarchal.” Although Job’s confession as interpreted does not explicitly support the [full] doctrine of resurrection, it is built on the same logic that will lead to that doctrine becoming the cornerstone of NT faith.” The same hope that Job is expressing here is expressed by the writers of the NT. Job and the authors of Scripture hold that even when God permits terrible injustices and undeserved suffering in the lives of those He loves, He is still just and fair. “God, himself, identified with Job’s sufferings in the sufferings of his Son, Jesus Christ, who suffered unto death even though he was innocent. Jesus overcame his ignominious death by rising from the grave. In his victory he, as God’s Son and mankind’s kinsman-redeemer, secured redemption for all who believe on him.” God the Son is the Redeemer of all who suffer in this life for His sake. Regardless of how one interprets these eternal words of Job, his “confidence in God as his Redeemer amidst excruciating suffering stands as a model for all Christians. 2


61.  Psa. 2:1-3 The enmity of kings foreordained Acts 4:25-28
62.  Psa. 2:2 To own the title, Anointed (Christ) John 1:41, Acts 2:36
63.  Psa. 2:6 His Character-Holiness John 8:46; Revelation 3:7
64.  Psa. 2:6 To own the title King Matthew 2:2
65.  Psa. 2:7 Declared the Beloved Son Matthew 3:17, Romans 1:4
66.  Psa. 2:7, 8 The Crucifixion and Resurrection intimated Acts 13:29-33
67.  Psa. 2:8, 9 Rule the nations with a rod of iron Rev. 2:27; 12:5; 19:15
68.  Psa. 2:12 Life comes through faith in Him John 20:31

J. F. Walvoord (2011): Immediately following this introductory psalm, Psalm 2 describes God’s purpose to put His Son as King on Mount Zion. The opening verses prophesy the rebellion of the world against the Lord. In response, “the One enthroned in heaven laughs; the Lord scoffs at them” (v. 4). This describes the attitude of God toward worldly power. In God’s prophetic purpose, however, He rebuked them in anger and terrified them in wrath, saying, “I have installed my King on Zion, my holy hill” (v. 6). The Lord also declared His eternal decree (vv. 7–9). God the Father was revealed as saying to the Son, “You are my Son; today I have become your Father” (v. 7). This will be fulfilled in the millennium. This passage has been variously interpreted by biblical scholars because it refers to the sonship of Christ. The best interpretation is that Jesus Christ has always been a Son in relation to the Father, but that the declaration of this was made in time. Some scholars have advanced other views, such as that Christ became the Son by incarnation, by baptism, or by resurrection. The interpretation also relates to the question as to whether Christ was a Son eternally by eternal generation. In John 3:16, God is declared to have given “his only begotten Son” (KJV). Because the word begotten implied beginning in time, it seemed a contradiction of eternal sonship. Probably the best solution is to hold that it referred to His eternal sonship—with the thought of having the life of the Father— without complicating it with the concept of a beginning. Isaiah 9:6 referred to Christ as “a son” who “is given.” Because the decree of God that declared Christ a Son is eternal, evidence seems to support the concept that He is eternally His Son, but that the revelation of this fact is made in time. Important to this purpose of God is the fact that God will subdue all things under the Son: “I will make the nations your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession. You will rule them with an iron scepter; you will dash them to pieces like pottery” (Ps. 2:8–9). The fact that Christ will rule as an absolute monarch is supported by other prophecies. Revelation 19:15 declared, “Out of his mouth comes a sharp sword with which to strike down the nations. ‘He will rule them with an iron scepter.’” In interpreting this passage, it is quite clear that Christ did not accomplish this at His first coming, and that the premillennial interpretation that He will accomplish this after His second coming fits the prophetic Scriptures on this subject. The messianic psalms generally pictured Christ on the throne of the Father now awaiting His future triumph, when He will subdue the earth and sit on the throne of David. In view of this coming judgment, kings and rulers were exhorted to “serve the LORD with fear and rejoice with trembling. Kiss the Son, lest he be angry and you be destroyed in your way, for His wrath can flare up in a moment. Blessed are all who take refuge in Him” (Ps. 2:11–12).30

69.  Psa. 8:2 The mouths of babes perfect His praise Matthew 21:16
70.  Psa. 8:5, 6 His humiliation and exaltation Hebrews 2:5-9

J. F. Walvoord (2011): The contrast of Psalm 8 was between Christ and Adam. It was God’s intent that Adam should rule the world, but this was interrupted by the entrance of sin into the situation. Now Christ has fulfilled what was originally Adam’s responsibility. Having suffered on earth and gone through the humiliation of death, Christ now has been exalted to heaven, and it is God’s purpose ultimately for Him to rule over the earth. This Scripture will be completely fulfilled when Christ comes back in His second coming.30

71.  Psa. 9:7-10 Judge the world in righteousness Acts 17:31
72.  Psa. 16:10 Was not to see corruption Acts 2:31; 13:35
73.  Psa. 16:9-11 Was to arise from the dead John 20:9

M.Rydelnik (2019): The NT’s interpretation of Psalm 16:10 as a prophecy of the Messiah’s resurrection, though often rejected on the basis of the grammatical-historical interpretation, has much in favor of it. The book of Psalms is really a book with a messianic message. Second, the interpretation of the individual psalms must not be done in isolation from their larger literary context. The royal messianic psalms function within Book I (1– 41), and most particularly within this particular grouping of psalms (Pss 15–24) that envisions the ascent of the ideal king, the Messianic King, to the eternal presence of God on His holy mountain. Other psalms within this grouping speak clearly of the death of the Messianic King. Finally, this discussion looked at the word in Ps 16:10 and argued in light of the other mi tām psalms that this king is not simply kept from the grave, but is actually raised from the grave and preserved from the decay of death. Given other psalms of David that have been interpreted both figuratively and messianically in Book I (Pss 3–7), one can confidently say, along with Peter, that David’s focus in this psalm is not on himself, but rather upon the King who is both his son (Ps 18:50) and also his Lord (Ps 110:1).2

J. F. Walvoord (2011): This psalm is considered one of the messianic psalms because verses 8–11 were quoted by Peter (Acts 2:25–28), and verse 10 was quoted by Paul at Antioch (Acts 13:35). David expressed his faith that he would not be abandoned to the grave (Ps. 16:10), referring to himself, but he added that God would not “let your Holy One see decay” (v. 10). This was fulfilled by Christ, as David’s body did decay. David would continue in the grave, but in his resurrection he would experience “the path of life” (v. 11). As used by Peter and Paul, Psalm 16:10 referred to Christ’s resurrection and was quoted as proof that the resurrection of Christ was predicted. Others today can enjoy fellowship with God as long as they live and have the assurance that when they die, though their bodies may be placed in the grave, they are subject to future resurrection and meanwhile will enjoy fellowship with God in heaven.30

74.  Psa. 17:15 The resurrection predicted Luke 24:6
75.  Psa. 18:2-3 The horn of salvation Luke 1:69-71
76.  Psa. 22:1 Forsaken because of sins of others 2 Corinthians 5:21
77.  Psa. 22:1 “My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?” Matthew 27:46
78.  Psa. 22:2 Darkness upon Calvary for three hours Matthew 27:45
79.  Psa. 22:7 They shoot out the lip and shake the head Matthew 27:39-44
80.  Psa. 22:8 “He trusted in God, let Him deliver Him” Matthew 27:43
81.  Psa. 22:9-10 Born the Saviour Luke 2:7
82.  Psa. 22:12-13 They seek His death John 19:6
83.  Psa. 22:14 His blood poured out when they pierced His side John 19:34
84.  Psa. 22:14, 15 Suffered agony on Calvary Mark 15:34-37
85.  Psa. 22:15 He thirsted John 19:28
86.  Psa. 22:16 They pierced His hands and His feet John 19:34, 37; 20:27
87.  Psa. 22:17, 18 Stripped Him before the stares of men Luke 23:34, 35
88.  Psa. 22:18 They parted His garments John 19:23, 24
89.  Psa. 22:20, 21 He committed Himself to God Luke 23:46
90.  Psa. 22:20, 21 Satanic power bruising the Redeemer’s heel Hebrews 2:14
91.  Psa. 22:22 His Resurrection declared John 20:17
92.  Psa. 22:27-28 He shall be the governor of the nations Colossians 1:16
93.  Psa. 22:31 “It is finished” John 19:30, Heb. 10:10, 12, 14, 18

M. Rydelnik (2019): Psalm 22 is a psalm describing the suffering, torment, and finally death of the messianic king who has been the book’s focus since Pss 1–2. The description of his cruel torment and torture is graphic and certainly was never true of David. Neither did David’s suffering of whatever type ever bring about the worldwide worship and praise depicted in the final strophe of the psalm. David’s words here are prophetic of a future royal descendant according to the covenant made with him. His suffering and death in Ps 22 are followed by glorious resurrection into the paradise of God in Ps 23. This is a theme and topic repeated in psalms before Ps 22 and following as well. His joy and universal worship described in vv. 22- 31 following the suffering and death of vv. 1-21 demonstrate that his suffering would have worldwide and universal effect and influence. The interpretation of Psalms and the rest of the Scriptures by Christ in Lk 24:25-27 and 44-47 is borne out by the Hebrew text of Ps 22 in its context. He did indeed have to suffer these things and “enter into His glory” as the Scriptures, including the Psalms, prophesied.2

Dr. J. B. Doukhan (2012) With Ps 22, Dan 9 shares the common idea of the Messiah suffering and dying without any help for him. The connection between the two texts is indirect through the use of the obscure expression ’eyn lo’ (“without for him”) in 9:26, which appears to be the shorter form of ’eyn ‘ozer lo’ (“without any help for him”) in Dan 11:45. If this is the case, we then have reason to believe that our passage alludes to Ps 22, which also uses the same expression ’eyn ‘ozer “without any help” (Ps 22:11; Heb. v. 12), referring to God:35 May God, be not far [rhq] from Me, . . . for there is none to help [’eyn ‘ozer]. (Ps 22:11; Heb. v. 12). The allusion of Dan 9 to Ps 22 would, then, suggest that the death of this Messiah would be understood as an abandonment of God. 27

J. F. Walvoord (2011): This psalm is considered one of the messianic psalms because some of the expressions in the psalm go far beyond any sufferings which David himself experienced. There was no known incident in the life of David that exactly corresponded to what the psalm states. What may have been true of David as a type of one suffering was literally fulfilled by the sufferings of Christ. The opening verse of Psalm 22 (“My God, my God, why have you forsaken me? Why are you so far from saving me, so far from the words of my groaning?”) was quoted by Christ, as recorded in Matthew 27:46 and Mark 15:34. In his distress David reassured himself that his God was “enthroned” (Ps. 22:3). The scorn and mocking of men and their insults mentioned in verses 6–8 was similar to what those mocking Christ on the cross expressed, not realizing they were quoting Scripture (cf. Matt. 27:39, 42–44). Those who surrounded the cross were compared to bulls and roaring lions (Ps. 22:12–13). His “strength is dried up like a potsherd” (v. 15). This is an obvious reference to the crucifixion: “Dogs have surrounded me; a band of evil men has encircled me, they have pierced my hands and my feet” (v. 16). The “dogs” were evil men. Rude stares and the casting of lots for His clothing are described in verses 17–18. David’s personal deliverance is indicated in verses 22–24, but it may also refer to Christ in His postresurrection ministry. The ultimate result is predicted in verses 27–28: “All the ends of the earth will remember and turn to the LORD, and all the families of the nations will bow down before Him, for dominion belongs to the LORD and he rules over the nations.” The psalm closes in verses 29–31 with a note of victory and praise that refers to David’s life, and, in the case of Christ, to His postresurrection triumph.30

94.  Psa. 23:1 “I am the Good Shepherd” John 10:11, 1Peter 2:25

M. Rydelnik (2019): The linguistic evidence demonstrates that Ps 23 is located precisely and carefully within a larger work that is an integrated and coherent whole. Its language and message are consistent with those psalms preceding and following, as well as those across the entire Psalter. Its location following Ps 22 is deliberate and provides an answer to the suffering and death described in the former. It also reaffirms the confidence, victory, and deliverance for the king expressed in Pss 20–21, and anticipates the glorious eschatological entrance into God’s eternal city in Ps 24. It may not be the message normally associated with Ps 23, but the previous Ps 22:23-31 had already intimated the same future for a great company of people (22:26). In other words, the formerly deceased king of Ps 22:22- 32 was joined by a great worshiping throng. They are the ones who fear God (22:23), praise Him (Ps 22:22, 26a), and who will live forever (Ps 22:26b) with Him. The formerly deceased king in fact calls them “my brothers” (Ps 22:22a), and so they will enjoy the paradise described in Ps 23 with Him as their resurrected Lord. 2

95.  Psa. 24:3 His exaltation predicted Acts 1:11; Philippians 2:9
96.  Psa. 30:3 His resurrection predicted Acts 2:32
97.  Psa. 31:5 “Into thy hands I commit my spirit” Luke 23:46

J. F. Walvoord (2011): Psalm 31:1–24. This is another psalm that is not considered messianic, but verse 5 states, “Into your hands I commit my spirit.” Christ repeated these precise words when He was on the cross (Luke 23:46). Peter expressed the same thought in 1 Peter 4:19. 30

98.  Psa. 31:11 His acquaintances fled from Him Mark 14:50
99.  Psa. 31:13 They took counsel to put Him to death Mt. 27:1, John 11:53
100.  Psa. 31:14, 15 “He trusted in God, let Him deliver him” Matthew 27:4
101.  Psa. 34:20 Not a bone of Him broken John 19:31-36
102.  Psa. 35:11 False witnesses rose up against Him Matthew 26:59
103. Psa. 35:19 He was hated without a cause John 15:25
104. Psa. 38:11 His friends stood afar off Luke 23:49
105. Psa. 38:12 Enemies try to entangle Him by craft Mark 14:1, Mt. 22:15
106. Psa. 38:12-13 Silent before His accusers Matthew 27:12-14
107. Psa. 38:20 He went about doing good Acts 10:38
108. Psa. 40:2-5 The joy of His resurrection predicted John 20:20
109. Psa. 40:6-8 His delight-the will of the Father John 4:34, Heb. 10:5-10
110. Psa. 40:9 He was to preach the Righteousness in Israel Matthew 4:17

J. F. Walvoord (2011): This is considered a messianic psalm largely because verses 6–8 are quoted in Hebrews 10:5–7 as fulfilled. As the psalm states, these verses refer to David’s praise to the Lord and his desire to do the will of God. This, however, also anticipated prophetically Christ’s perfect obedience and His sacrifice as superior to the sacrifices of the Mosaic law. The argument of Hebrews 10 is that Christ in His perfect sacrifice supplied that which the Law could not do with its temporary sacrifices. Key words in the psalm are righteousness (vv. 9–10), faithfulness, salvation, love, and truth (v. 10).30

111. Psa. 40:14 Confronted by adversaries in the Garden John 18:4-6

M.Rydelnik (2019): Ps 40, particularly vv. 6 through 10, is messianic. It depicts the Messiah who gratefully offered His body in the service of Yahweh. Intextual exegesis demonstrated the unique and divine character of the Messiah, rising out of the context of a Davidic psalm. Innertextual analysis of connected psalms strengthened the thesis by discussing connections within the Psalter. Finally, intertextual analysis traced common messianic themes to other passages in the OT. Together the three lines of evidence point to the Messiah, whose body was made ready for sacrificial service to the Lord God.2

112. Psa. 41:9 Betrayed by a familiar friend John 13:18

J. F. Walvoord (2011):  Psalm 41:9. Christ was to be betrayed by a friend (v. 9), which was fulfilled in His lifetime (Matt. 26:14–16, 47, 50; Mark 14:17–21; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:18–19; cf. Ps. 55:12–14).30

113. Psa. 45:2 Words of Grace come from His lips John 1:17, Luke 4:22
114. Psa. 45:6 To own the title, God or Elohim Hebrews 1:8
115. Psa. 45:7 A special anointing by the Holy Spirit Mt. 3:16; Heb. 1:9
116. Psa. 45:7, 8 Called the Christ (Messiah or Anointed) Luke 2:11
117. Psa. 45:17 His name remembered forever Ephesians 1:20-21, Heb. 1:8

M. Rydelnik (2019): As the king in Ps 45 is more beautiful than the sons of men, we have seen that this psalm also qualifies as one of the most beautiful psalms in the Psalter. We can give a direct messianic interpretation of this psalm, particularly because of its unequaled and sustained praise of the king of Israel who is mysteriously human and divine. Looking at the identity of the bride in Ps 45, the author of the Book of Psalms has presented the bride as a figurative representative of the people of Israel. This is supported by the metaphorical use of the word “daughter” elsewhere in the psalm, as well as by the relationship of this psalm to the other psalms in the group. The bride’s entrance into the palace is presented as the resolution to Israel’s distance to God’s palace. Moreover, it was shown that wedding metaphors are used in the prophetic literature to depict God’s redemption of his people in the last days. Furthermore, the Psalm’s primary structure is divided between the battlefield and the palace, the settings of which provide answers to the problems posed in the preceding psalms (42–44). The psalmist is far away from God’s palace (His Temple) and His presence, and the people of Israel have suffered devastating defeat on the battlefield. Psalm 45 provides the solution to these problems. First, the Divine-Messiah King rides out to totally vanquish Israel’s enemies on the battlefield. Next, the Divine-Messiah King sits upon His eternal throne and a call is given to bring the bride along with other nations into His presence (His Temple). With the divine distance overcome and Israel’s enemies vanquished, the celebrations now begin in the Sons of Korah psalms that follow after (46–49). Finally, there is an intertextual relationship between Ps 45 and other well-known messianic prophecies, most notably, Gn 49, 2Sm 7, and Zch 9. The strong allusions to these passages strongly support the direct messianic interpretation of this psalm. It is fitting to conclude with a citation from the last book of the Bible, which (being the prototype for a good story) ends with a climactic wedding. As in much of the book of Revelation, the following verses draw on the OT, not least the picture of the Messiah-King and His beautiful bride in Ps 45. 

Then I saw heaven opened, and there was a white horse. Its rider is called Faithful and True, and He judges and makes war in righteousness…. A sharp sword came from His mouth, so that He might strike the nations with it. He will shepherd them with an iron scepter. He will also trample the winepress of the fierce anger of God, the Almighty…. I also saw the Holy City, new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God, prepared like a bride adorned for her husband. Then I heard a loud voice from the throne: Look! God’s dwelling is with humanity, and He will live with them. They will be His people, and God Himself will be with them and be their God. (Rev 19:11, 15; 21:2-3)2

J. F. Walvoord (2011):  This is classified as a messianic psalm because verses 6–7 refer to David’s throne as eternal (2 Sam. 7:16), and these verses are quoted in Hebrews 1:8–9 regarding the ultimate rule of Christ on earth. As the Scripture states, God’s “throne… will last forever and ever” (Ps. 45:6), and His rule will be characterized by righteousness and justice. Verses 8–9 picture the king on his wedding day. The beauty of the bride is described in verse 11: “The king is enthralled by your beauty; honor him, for he is your lord.” The bride is further described in verse 13–14. Her garments are “interwoven with gold” (v. 13) and beautifully “embroidered” (v. 14). Future children of the bride are described as princes, and their memory will be perpetuated (vv. 16–17). Though the psalm seems to refer to a wedding of David, it is remarkably similar to the concept of Christ and His bride. The apostle John may have had this passage in mind in Revelation 19:6–21. The psalm as a whole, therefore, is typical of Christ as the King and son of David and will be fulfilled in the Rapture. 30

118. Psa. 55:12-14 Betrayed by a friend, not an enemy John 13:18
119. Psa. 55:15 Unrepentant death of the Betrayer Matthew 27:3-5; Acts 1:16-19
120. Psa. 68:18 To give gifts to men Ephesians 4:7-16
121. Psa. 68:18 Ascended into Heaven Luke 24:51

J. F. Walvoord (2011): Christ will lead captives in His ascension (Eph. 4:8 ). He will also crush the heads of His enemies. This was fulfilled in David’s lifetime and will be fulfilled by Christ at His second coming (Rev. 19:11–15).30

122. Psa. 69:4 Hated without a cause John 15:25
123. Psa. 69:8 A stranger to own brethren John 1:11; 7:5
124. Psa. 69:9 Zealous for the Lord’s House John 2:17
125. Psa. 69:14-20 Messiah’s anguish of soul before crucifixion Matthew 26:36-45
126. Psa. 69:20 “My soul is exceeding sorrowful.” Matthew 26:38
127. Psa. 69:21 Given vinegar in thirst Matthew 27:34
128. Psa. 69:26 The Saviour given and smitten by God John 17:4; 18:11

M. Rydelnik (2019): Many years ago, Delitzsch wrote of Ps 69: 

The whole Psalm is typically prophetic, in as far as it is a declaration of a history of life and suffering molded by God into a factual prediction concerning Jesus the Christ, whether it be the story of a king or a prophet; and in as far as the Spirit of prophecy has even molded the declaration itself into the language of prophecy concerning the future One. 

Psalm 69 portrays the words of the innocent Suffering Servant, bearing from the hands of God the reproach of those who reject Him. The lament of this psalm ultimately finds its eschatological answer in the work of the king of Ps 72, the hope toward which the first two books of the Psalter lead. This prophetic and messianic message was not lost on the writers of the NT, as the text is quoted consistently as pointing to the life and work of Jesus, the Messiah.2

J. F. Walvoord (2011):  Often considered a messianic psalm, the portions of this psalm detailing David’s cry for help parallel the sufferings of Christ. Those who hated David were similar to those who hated Christ, as verse 4 states: “Those who hate me without reason outnumber the hairs of my head.” The zeal of David in verse 9, “for zeal for your house consumes me,” was related by the disciples to Christ in explaining Christ’s cleansing of the temple (John 2:17). In Psalm 69:21 David stated, “They put gall in my food and gave me vinegar for my thirst.” This relates to the vinegar given to Christ on the cross (Matt. 27:48; Mark 15:36; Luke 23:36). Though not a direct prophecy, these passages can be interpreted typically as relating to Christ.30

129. Psa. 72:10, 11 Great persons were to visit Him Matthew 2:1-11
130. Psa. 72:16 The corn of wheat to fall into the Ground John 12:24-25
131. Psa. 72:17 Belief on His name will produce offspring John 1:12, 13
132. Psa. 72:17 All nations shall be blessed by Him Galatians 3:8
133. Psa. 72:17 All nations shall call Him blessed John 12:13, Rev. 5:8-12

M. Rydelnik (2019): In his Exposition of the Psalms, Augustine begins his discussion of Psalm 72 with a brief reflection of the psalm’s superscription, “‘For Salomon’ indeed this Psalm’s title is forenoted: but things are spoken of therein which could not apply to that Salomon king of Israel after the flesh, according to those things which holy Scripture speaketh concerning him: but they can most pertinently apply to the Lord Christ.” Augustine’s words demonstrate well the messianic nature of Ps 72. Psalm 72 offers a vision of the future, depicted in connection to the past, thereby preserving the continuity with Israel’s history. The psalm reinforces God’s universal rule transcending time and location through the coronation of Israel’s king. This aspect of Ps 72 is clear not only to those who recognize Jesus as the Messiah. Jewish interpreters also saw in Ps 72 a messianic expectation. Now it is evident in the text of Scripture that the ideal King has taken His throne and will come again to establish the kingdom of God. In Ps 72, the psalmist’s petitions remind us of God’s faithfulness and of the nation’s utter dependence on Him to provide the King capable of living up to Israel’s expectations and God’s standards. Jesus of Nazareth is the hoped-for King. He is the answer to the prayers of the psalmist.2

134. Psa. 78:1-2 He would teach in parables Matthew 13:34-35
135. Psa. 78:2 To speak the Wisdom of God with authority Matthew 7:29
136. Psa. 80:17 The Man of God’s right hand Mark 14:61-62
137. Psa. 88 The Suffering and Reproach of Calvary Matthew 27:26-50
138. Psa. 88:8 They stood afar off and watched Luke 23:49

M. Rydelnik (2019): Psalm 86 narrated prophetically the suffering, death, and resurrection of the Messianic King, resulting in many Gentile nations coming to worship the Lord. Psalm 87 identified holy and eschatological Zion, the city of God, as their goal, of which they became official and beloved citizens. Psalm 88 narrated the death of the Messianic King, separating Him from those beloved dwellers of Zion. His resurrection from that realm, already stated in Ps 86, is implied directly by abundant parallel language in the first verses of Ps 89. There He appears singing and making known the faithfulness of God, followed by a quotation of the Davidic covenant, which promised Him a seed seated forever on an eternal throne. That promise is fulfilled in Him by His resurrection from the death of Ps 88 and His rule in the eschatological Zion of Ps 87.2

139. Psa. 89:9 He calms the wind and the sea Matthew 8:26
140. Psa. 89:27 Firstborn Colossians 1:15, 18
141. Psa. 89:27 Emmanuel to be higher than earthly kings Luke 1:32, 33
142. Psa. 89:35-37 David’s Seed, throne, kingdom endure forever Luke 1:32, 33
143. Psa. 89:36-37 His character-Faithfulness Revelation 1:5; 19:11

M. Rydelnik (2019): Psalm 89 is universally recognized as one of the most apparent and beloved of the messianic psalms. Among other features, it includes the noun mashiach (“anointed [one or thing]”) twice (vv. 39, 52) and the verb mashach (“anoint, set apart”) once (v. 20), with David as recipient. The name of the “proto-messiah” David occurs four times (vv. 3, 20, 35, 49) plus several allusions to him: “horn” (vv. 17, 24), “king” (vv. 18, 27), “chosen one” (v. 19), “firstborn” (v. 27). Among other messianic terms associated with him are: “servant” (vv. 3, 20, 39, 50); “seed” (or “offspring,” vv. 4, 29, 36); “throne” (vv. 4, 29, 36, 44); and “shield” (v. 18). The NT affirmation of the messianic character of the psalm is abundant.2

144. Psa. 90:2 He is from everlasting (Micah 5:2) John 1:1
145. Psa. 91:11, 12 Identified as Messianic; used to tempt Christ Luke 4:10, 11
146. Psa. 97:9 His exaltation predicted Acts 1:11; Ephesians 1:20
147. Psa. 100:5 His character-Goodness Matthew 19:16, 17
148. Psa. 102:1-11 The Suffering and Reproach of Calvary John 19:16-30
149. Psa. 102:25-27 Messiah is the Preexistent Son Hebrews 1:10-12
150. Psa. 109:25 Ridiculed Matthew 27:39
151. Psa. 110:1 Son of David Matthew 22:42-43
152. Psa. 110:1 To ascend to the right-hand of the Father Mark 16:19
153. Psa. 110:1 David’s son called Lord Matthew 22:44, 45
154. Psa. 110:4 A priest after Melchizedek’s order Hebrews 6:20

M. Rydelnik (2019): Psalm 110 has long been understood as a direct prediction of the Messiah. Ps 110 does picture the divine Priest-King, now seated at the right hand of God, but who will descend from heaven at the end of days to save Israel and extend His rule over all the earth. This is none other than the Messiah. Likely that is why both Jewish and Christian sources have long held that Ps 110 is about the Messiah. That is why Jesus, speaking to some of His Jewish contemporaries about Ps 110, pointedly asked how David could call the son of David, Lord (Mt 22:41-46). Their failure to answer Jesus’ question demonstrated that they must certainly have agreed with the messianic interpretation of Ps 110 but could not explain how the psalm could present the Messiah as deity (Lord). Although Jesus does not add any further commentary to this text, it is obvious that He too interpreted Ps 110 as about a divine Messiah. What The words of the psalm, taken in their ordinary sense, admit of no other interpretation. The subject of the psalm is the king in Zion, exalted to heaven, as Dan. vii. 13; in verse 5 is called … [ Adonay], THE LORD, and is described as judge of kings and nations. The description can apply only to him who is David’s son and David’s Lord.”2

J. F. Walvoord (2011): The ultimate judgment of Christ on the nations of the world, particularly at His second coming, is prophesied: “The Lord is at your right hand; he will crush kings on the day of his wrath. He will judge the nations, heaping up the dead and crushing the rulers of the whole earth” (vv. 5–6). This will be fulfilled in the millennium (Rev. 19:11–15).  30

155. Psa. 112:4 His character-Compassionate, Gracious, et al Matthew 9:36
156. Psa. 118:17, 18 Messiah’s Resurrection assured Luke 24:5-7; 1Cor. 15:20
157. Psa. 118:22, 23 The rejected stone is Head of the corner Matthew 21:42, 43
158. Psa. 118:26 The Blessed One presented to Israel Matthew 21:9
159. Psa. 118:26 To come while Temple standing Matthew 21:12-15

M. Rydelnik (2019): The apostles understood Ps 118 to be about the Messiah and that Jesus of Nazareth matched the description of the Messiah portrayed in it. Consequently, Ps 118 provided evidence that Jesus was the Messiah, which explains why this psalm appears so often in the NT. And there was good reason for them to see that the subject of Ps 118 was the Messiah. Evidence suggests—from the psalm itself, the surrounding context in the Psalms, and from the larger OT context—that the subject of the psalm was the ideal royal figure who would fulfill the Lord’s covenant with David. When read in the light of the full context of the Christian canon, Ps 118 celebrates the Lord’s eternal covenant faithfulness to David. It is a reminder that the Lord would save and protect His Anointed one, not allowing Him to see death (Ps 118:17-18), and that the Lord’s anointed —Jesus—will lead a festal procession to the Temple and inaugurate a new work: the building of a new temple. All of this is a demonstration of the Lord’s eternal covenant faithfulness. God’s people can, therefore, have confidence that the Lord is a faithful promise keeper and that Jesus is His Messiah, sent to conquer all the enemies of His people.2

175. Isa. 8:8 Called Emmanuel Matthew 1:23
176. Isa. 8:14 A stone of stumbling, a Rock of offense 1Peter 2:8
177. Isa. 9:1, 2 His ministry to begin in Galilee Matthew 4:12-17
178. Isa. 9:6 A child born-Humanity Luke 1:31
179. Isa. 9:6 A Son given-Deity Luke 1:32, John 1:14, 1Tim. 3:16
180. Isa. 9:6 Declared to be the Son of God with power Romans 1:3, 4
181. Isa. 9:6 The Wonderful One, Peleh Luke 4:22
182. Isa. 9:6 The Counsellor, Yaatz Matthew 13:54
183. Isa. 9:6 The Mighty God, El Gibor 1Cor. 1:24, Titus 2:13
184. Isa. 9:6 The Everlasting Father, Avi Adth John 8:58; 10:30
185. Isa. 9:6 The Prince of Peace, Sar Shalom John 16:33
186. Isa. 9:7 Inherits the throne of David Luke 1:32
187. Isa. 9:7 His Character-Just John 5:30
188. Isa. 9:7 No end to his Government, Throne, and kingdom Luke 1:33

E. E. HINDSON (2019): The messianic trajectory of the prophet Isaiah extends from the prediction of the birth of Immanuel (7:14) to the divine child (9:6) and culminates in the future Davidic King (11:1-6). Taken as a unit, the
Immanuel prophecies (7–12) paint a picture of the coming messianic king. His birth is unique (7:14); His character is majestic (9:6); His land is threatened (8:; and His triumph is assured (11:4). The child born destined to become God’s ideal king is far more than a human ruler. He is in fact the “mighty God” who will come to rule the kingdom of God on earth. He is Immanuel (“God with us”), and Isaiah can say to the cities of Judah, “Behold your God!” (40:9 ESV). Thus, Jesus would begin His earthly ministry announcing, “the kingdom of God has come near” (Mk 1:15). When Pilate later asked, “So you are a king?” Jesus responded, “For this purpose I was born and for this
purpose I have come into the world” (Jn 18:37 ESV). At His return to earth, the Scripture declares Him to be “King of kings and Lord of lords” (Rev 19:16).2

189. Isa. 11:1 Called a Nazarene-the Branch, Netzer Matthew 2:23
190. Isa. 11:1 A rod out of Jesse-Son of Jesse Luke 3:23, 32
191. Isa. 11:2 Anointed One by the Spirit Matthew 3:16, 17, Acts 10:38
192. Isa. 11:2 His Character-Wisdom, Knowledge, et al Colossians 2:3
193. Isa. 11:3 He would know their thoughts Luke 6:8, John 2:25
194. Isa. 11:4 Judge in righteousness Acts 17:31
195. Isa. 11:4 Judges with the sword of His mouth Rev. 2:16; 19:11, 15
196. Isa. 11:5 Character: Righteous & Faithful Rev. 19:11
197. Isa. 11:10 The Gentiles seek Him John 12:18-21

E. E. HINDSON (2019): The apostle Paul (Rom 15:12) was certainly convinced that Isa 11:10 applied to Jesus since he quoted it in the context of His ministry to both the Jews and Gentiles. John Stott comments, “Thus the Messiah would be simultaneously the root of Jesse and the hope of the nations.” Robert Mounce writes, “Paul cited the well-known messianic promise from Isaiah 11. The Messiah will come as a shoot springing up from the stump of David’s line.” If Paul, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, viewed Isaiah 11 as applying to Jesus, how much more should we? This section of Isaiah (chaps. 7–12), known frequently as “The Book of Immanuel,” contains three significant Messianic predictions: the virgin birth, the birth of the divine King, and the reign of the righteous messianic King. In the first, the Messiah’s birth is predicted (7:13-15); in the second, His deity is revealed (9:6-7); and here in this last prediction (discussed in this article), the Messiah’s ultimate destiny is unveiled (11:1-16). He will be the glorious King of the line of David, whose belt is “righteousness” and “faithfulness” (11:5) and whose role will be to make the land to “will be filled with the knowledge of the LORD‘s glory, as the waters cover the sea“ (Hab 2:14). This is the one true hope of Israel and the world, to “seek Him” and the glorious peace that He alone will give.2

198. Isa. 12:2 Called Jesus-Yeshua Matthew 1:21
199. Isa. 22:22 The One given all authority to govern Revelation 3:7








J. F. Walvoord (2011): The love of God as enduring forever is expressed in repetition (vv. 1–4). This is fulfilled in time and eternity. The psalmist predicted that “the stone the builders rejected” will become “the capstone” (v. 22). This will be accomplished by the Lord Himself (vv. 23–24). This passage anticipates the rejection of Christ (Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10; Luke 20:17) and His later exaltation. The historical context of this passage may have been a failure to recognize a king or the nation of Israel for their victories.  This psalm is a direct prophecy concerning Christ. “The stone the builders rejected has become the capstone; the LORD has done this, and it is marvelous in our eyes. This is the day the LORD has made; let us rejoice and be glad in it” (vv. 22–24). Christ as the rejected King in His second coming will be the capstone, that is, He will fulfill what was anticipated in His authority as King of Kings in ruling the entire earth.30



160. Psa. 132:11 The Seed of David (the fruit of His Body) Luke 1:32, Act 2:30

161. Psa. 129:3 He was scourged Matthew 27:26

162. Psa. 138:1-6 The supremacy of David’s Seed amazes kings Matthew 2:2-6

163. Psa. 147:3, 6 The earthly ministry of Christ described Luke 4:18

164. Prov. 1:23 He will send the Spirit of God John 16:7

165. Prov. 8:23 Foreordained from everlasting Rev. 13:8, 1Peter 1:19-20



M. Rydelnik (2019): Proverbs 8:22-31 has long been regarded as an important passage for the Christology of the Church. For many throughout Church history, this passage referred to the pre-incarnate Son of God, Divine Wisdom, who is the Father’s eternal delight and through whom all things were created. Proverbs 8 provides a glimpse of the Father and His Son behind the veil of man’s finite experience. It celebrates the Father and the Son prior to, and throughout, the creation jubilee. This passage has played a formative role in both Jewish and Christian theology. It was foundational to a reading of the creation narrative as something much more than a solo sung by a lonely, apathetic God. Rather, God sang the creation song in Triune harmony, His Son laughing, dancing, and playing in His lap as each day unfolded. Although a Christological reading of Prv 8:22-31 has fallen on hard times of late, Targum Neophyti and the Church fathers correctly understood Prv 8 as a reference to the Son of God, the promised Messiah. The Christological reading does not finally complicate the interpretation of Prov. 8 but presents instead the resolution of a mystery latent in the text. This key passage points the way to participation in the Father’s delight for any genuine seeker of God. Those who desire to enter into this joy are invited, provided they can each answer just one simple question: “What is the name of His Son? Surely you know” (Prv 30:4).2



166. Song. 5:16 The altogether lovely One John 1:17

167. Isa. 2:3 He shall teach all nations John 4:25

168. Isa. 2:4 He shall judge among the nations John 5:22



J. RANDALL PRICE (2019): “Isaiah” (Heb. Yeshiyahu) means “the LORD saves” and Micah (Heb. Micah) means “who is like the LORD?” both expressions of Messiah’s divine nature and redemptive work elsewhere presented by these prophets (Isa 9:6-7; 53:4-12; Mic 7:18). Likewise, the restoration context of the “last days” and the central figure personally deciding justice for the nations, ending war, and guaranteeing international peace can be none other than King Messiah, the Prince of Peace (Isa 9:6-7; cf. Isa 52:7; 66:12; Ezk 37:26; Hag 2:9; Zch 9:10). Thus, restoration texts are messianic texts, since the agent of restoration is the Messiah. 2



169. Isa. 6:1 When Isaiah saw His glory John 12:40-41

170. Isa. 6:8 The One Sent by God John 12:38-45

171. Isa. 6:9-10 Parables fall on deaf ears Matthew 13:13-15

172. Isa. 6:9-12 Blinded to Christ and deaf to His words Acts 28:23-29

173. Isa. 7:14 To be born of a virgin Luke 1:35

174. Isa. 7:14 To be Emmanuel-God with us Matthew 1:18-23, 1Tim. 3:16



MICHAEL A. RYDELNIK (2019): Isa 7:14 is the most controversial of messianic prophecies. Disputes revolve around a variety of issues, chiefly, the meaning of the word ‘almah, the relationship of Isaiah’s “sign” to the context, the way the original readers of the prophecy would have understood it, and Matthew’s citation of this verse in support of the virgin birth. As a result, interpreters have divided into three primary views of the passage, and even among these views, expositors present their own unique perspectives. The first view, held by many traditional Christian interpreters, is to see the prophecy as a direct prediction of the virgin birth of the Messiah. Taking different approaches as to how the prophecy relates to the original context, they each conclude that the word ‘almah means “virgin” and refers to the mother of Jesus. A second position, frequently held by critics and Jewish interpreters, is that of a purely historical interpretation. It views Isaiah’s promise to be that a young woman in the eighth century BC would have sexual relations and then give birth to a child that would serve as a sort of hourglass for Judah—before that child reached a certain age, the two kings threatening Judah would be removed. Third, a common approach taken by contemporary Christian scholars is to view the prophecy as having some sort of dual or multiple fulfillment. Isaiah is understood to refer to the natural birth of a child in his own day to function as a sign to Judah. Nevertheless, they contend that this does not exhaust the meaning. Rather, by double fulfillment, sensus plenior, type, a later rereading, progressive fulfillment, or even by the use of first-century Jewish hermeneutics, the prophecy also refers to the virgin birth of Jesus. By placing the prophecy in context, through a careful reading of the text of Isa 7 and relating it to innerbiblical interpretations of the passage, a view that supports a direct prediction of the virgin birth makes the most sense. That would explain Matthew’s reason for citing Isa 7:14 as a prediction of the virgin birth.



It appears that according to prophecy, the Messiah’s virgin birth was an essential to be believed for two reasons. First, the virgin birth was to be a major sign to confirm Messiah Jesus’ position as the messianic son of David. If Jesus of Nazareth had a human father named Larry or Joseph, it would prove that He really was not the Messiah. No matter how good a life one could lead by believing in Jesus, it would be a sham. Following Jesus changes our lives because He truly is the Messiah. Second, the virgin birth is in some way related to the deity of Jesus. The prediction foretells that the Messiah would be Immanuel or “God with us.” Luke, when recording the virgin birth, records the angel’s message to Mary: “The Holy Spirit will come upon you and the power of the Most High will overshadow you. Therefore, the holy One to be born will be called the Son of God” (Lk 1:35). Just as Isaiah related the virgin birth to Messiah being God with us, so Luke regards the virgin birth as the basis for Jesus’ being the Son of God, that is, Deity. Foundational to our faith is that God became a man in order to redeem us. Without the virgin birth, we deny the doctrine of Messiah’s deity and lose the truth of His atonement. 2



175. Isa. 8:8 Called Emmanuel Matthew 1:23

176. Isa. 8:14 A stone of stumbling, a Rock of offense 1Peter 2:8

177. Isa. 9:1, 2 His ministry to begin in Galilee Matthew 4:12-17

178. Isa. 9:6 A child born-Humanity Luke 1:31

179. Isa. 9:6 A Son given-Deity Luke 1:32, John 1:14, 1Tim. 3:16

180. Isa. 9:6 Declared to be the Son of God with power Romans 1:3, 4

181. Isa. 9:6 The Wonderful One, Peleh Luke 4:22

182. Isa. 9:6 The Counsellor, Yaatz Matthew 13:54

183. Isa. 9:6 The Mighty God, El Gibor 1Cor. 1:24, Titus 2:13

184. Isa. 9:6 The Everlasting Father, Avi Adth John 8:58; 10:30

185. Isa. 9:6 The Prince of Peace, Sar Shalom John 16:33

186. Isa. 9:7 Inherits the throne of David Luke 1:32

187. Isa. 9:7 His Character-Just John 5:30

188. Isa. 9:7 No end to his Government, Throne, and kingdom Luke 1:33



E. E. HINDSON (2019): The messianic trajectory of the prophet Isaiah extends from the prediction of the birth of Immanuel (7:14) to the divine child (9:6) and culminates in the future Davidic King (11:1-6). Taken as a unit, the

Immanuel prophecies (7–12) paint a picture of the coming messianic king. His birth is unique (7:14); His character is majestic (9:6); His land is threatened (8:; and His triumph is assured (11:4). The child born destined to become God’s ideal king is far more than a human ruler. He is in fact the “mighty God” who will come to rule the kingdom of God on earth. He is Immanuel (“God with us”), and Isaiah can say to the cities of Judah, “Behold your God!” (40:9 ESV). Thus, Jesus would begin His earthly ministry announcing, “the kingdom of God has come near” (Mk 1:15). When Pilate later asked, “So you are a king?” Jesus responded, “For this purpose I was born and for this

purpose I have come into the world” (Jn 18:37 ESV). At His return to earth, the Scripture declares Him to be “King of kings and Lord of lords” (Rev 19:16).2



189. Isa. 11:1 Called a Nazarene-the Branch, Netzer Matthew 2:23

190. Isa. 11:1 A rod out of Jesse-Son of Jesse Luke 3:23, 32

191. Isa. 11:2 Anointed One by the Spirit Matthew 3:16, 17, Acts 10:38

192. Isa. 11:2 His Character-Wisdom, Knowledge, et al Colossians 2:3

193. Isa. 11:3 He would know their thoughts Luke 6:8, John 2:25

194. Isa. 11:4 Judge in righteousness Acts 17:31

195. Isa. 11:4 Judges with the sword of His mouth Rev. 2:16; 19:11, 15

196. Isa. 11:5 Character: Righteous & Faithful Rev. 19:11

197. Isa. 11:10 The Gentiles seek Him John 12:18-21



E. E. HINDSON (2019): The apostle Paul (Rom 15:12) was certainly convinced that Isa 11:10 applied to Jesus since he quoted it in the context of His ministry to both the Jews and Gentiles. John Stott comments, “Thus the Messiah would be simultaneously the root of Jesse and the hope of the nations.” Robert Mounce writes, “Paul cited the well-known messianic promise from Isaiah 11. The Messiah will come as a shoot springing up from the stump of David’s line.” If Paul, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, viewed Isaiah 11 as applying to Jesus, how much more should we? This section of Isaiah (chaps. 7–12), known frequently as “The Book of Immanuel,” contains three significant Messianic predictions: the virgin birth, the birth of the divine King, and the reign of the righteous messianic King. In the first, the Messiah’s birth is predicted (7:13-15); in the second, His deity is revealed (9:6-7); and here in this last prediction (discussed in this article), the Messiah’s ultimate destiny is unveiled (11:1-16). He will be the glorious King of the line of David, whose belt is “righteousness” and “faithfulness” (11:5) and whose role will be to make the land to “will be filled with the knowledge of the LORD‘s glory, as the waters cover the sea“ (Hab 2:14). This is the one true hope of Israel and the world, to “seek Him” and the glorious peace that He alone will give.2



198. Isa. 12:2 Called Jesus-Yeshua Matthew 1:21

199. Isa. 22:22 The One given all authority to govern Revelation 3:7

200. Isa. 25:8 The Resurrection predicted 1Corinthians 15:54

201. Isa. 26:19 His power of Resurrection predicted Matthew 27:50-54
202. Isa. 28:16 The Messiah is the precious corner stone Acts 4:11, 12
203. Isa. 28:16 The Sure Foundation 1Corinthians 3:11, Mt. 16:18

J. R. PRICE (2019): The identity of the cornerstone/foundation is a key issue for understanding the messianic interpretation of Isaiah 28:16 and for the Church’s justification for trust in Jesus as the promised Messiah-Savior for Israel and the whole world. From the context, exegesis, and intertextual use of “stone” and “cornerstone” in Isa 28:16, this is clearly a passage referring to the Messiah. The history of interpretation from the church fathers, to ancient and medieval Judaism, indicates that this is a messianic text. Most important, the NT writers applied the cornerstone images to Jesus the Messiah. All the evidence argues for a messianic interpretation: Isaiah 28:16 prophesied Messiah as the cornerstone. As Walter C. Kaiser observes, “this Stone is the ‘cornerstone’ or ‘foundation stone’ that ties the building together. That is why it makes such a ‘sure foundation’ (v. 16c). It cannot be wiggled back and forth; it is immoveable and secure.” All who believe in this stone by accepting Him as their Messiah “will be unshakeable” (v. 16d). As Walter Kaiser says, the Messiah “will prove Himself dependable, reliable, trustworthy, and foundational for everything else in life!”2

204. Isa. 29:13 He indicated hypocritical obedience to His Word Matthew 15:7-9
205. Isa. 29:14 The wise are confounded by the Word 1Corinthians 1:18-31
206. Isa. 32:2 A Refuge-A man shall be a hiding place Matthew 23:37

EVA RYDELNIK (2019): At a time when Israel was on the brink of invasion by Assyria, and Judah was foolishly seeking a military alliance with Egypt for protection, Isaiah delivers a message of hope—not expectation of political defense or deliverance, but two glorious prophecies of the Messianic King. First, the Righteous King will rule justly and transform the nation during His millennial reign (32:1-8 ). Then Isaiah gives the promise of the outpouring of the Spirit to usher in a time of justice, righteousness, and peace under the reign of Messiah (32:15-20). Finally, the prophet declares there will be a day when their eyes will see the Majestic King in all His beauty, and they will dwell in peace in Zion because the majestic King Messiah will rule as Judge, lawgiver, and King who forgives all sin (33:17-24).2

207. Isa. 35:4 He will come and save you Matthew 1:21
208. Isa. 35:5-6 To have a ministry of miracles Matthew 11:2-6

J. F. COAKLEY (2019):  Although Isa 35 may at first glance not appear to be a messianic prophecy, once the entire structural, contextual, and linguistic evidence is examined, the case for this passage being messianic is much stronger than it first appears. This passage clearly establishes that one of the marks of the Messiah will be that He will heal all sorts of physical handicaps such as blindness and deafness (v. 5). Similar to Isa 61:1-2, where there is a gap between the first and second coming of the Messiah Jesus, this passage also portrays the Messiah as healer, followed by a gap in which the Messiah will return to fulfill the millennial kingdom blessings on the people and on the land. Although there may be some aspect of spiritual fulfillment in this text at some future time (healing from spiritual blindness and deafness), the passage emphasizes physical healing for both people and the land. In conclusion, this study has made the case that Isa 35 is located in a zone of turbulence in the book, to demonstrate that Isa 35 is indeed a messianic passage. Poetic exuberance in this text gives way to a glorious description of the new Zion where miracles will take place. The Messianic Age will be established only under the glorious royal reign of the compassionate, miracle-working Messiah! 2

209. Isa. 40:3, 4 Preceded by forerunner John 1:23

J. F. Walvoord (2011): All four gospels attribute this passage to John the Baptist as the forerunner of Christ (Matt. 3:1–4; Mark 1:2–4; Luke 1:76–79; John 1:23).30

210. Isa. 40:9 “Behold your God.” John 1:36; 19:14
211. Isa. 40:10. He will come to reward Revelation 22:12
212. Isa. 40:11 A shepherd-compassionate life-giver John 10:10-18
213. Isa. 42:1-4 The Servant-as a faithful, patient redeemer Matthew 12:18-21
214. Isa. 42:2 Meek and lowly Matthew 11:28-30
215. Isa. 42:3 He brings hope for the hopeless Mt. 12:14-21; John 4:1-54
216. Isa. 42:4 The nations shall wait on His teachings John 12:20-26
217. Isa. 42:6 The Light (salvation) of the Gentiles Luke 2:32
218. Isa. 42:1, 6 His is a worldwide compassion Matthew 28:19, 20
219. Isa. 42:7 Blind eyes opened. John 9:25-38

R. B. CHISHOLM JR. (2019): Isaiah 42:1-9 is the first of Isaiah’s so-called Servant Songs (Isa 42:1-9; 49:1-13; 50:4-9; 52:13–53:12). These Songs describe the ministry of an individual Servant, pictured as an ideal Israel, who leads sinful, exiled Israel out of bondage and back to its land. This Servant also establishes worldwide justice as he brings the Lord’s deliverance to the nations. The Lord ultimately exalts the Servant, but the Servant must first suffer humiliation on behalf of Israel and “the many” so that they may be reconciled to the Lord. In the progress of biblical revelation, we discover that Jesus the Messiah is the Servant depicted in this Song. The NT identifies Jesus as the Servant of Isaiah’s first Servant Song. Simeon identified the infant Jesus as the “light” of God’s revelation who would bring salvation to the nations (Lk 2:30, 32; cf. Isa 42:6-7). From the very beginning of His ministry, Jesus began to take this light to the Gentiles (Mt 4:23-25). At His baptism the divine Spirit came upon Jesus and God identified Him as His Son, in whom He delighted (Mt 3:17; Mk 1:11; cf. Isa 42:1). At the transfiguration, God identified Jesus as the one whom He had chosen (Lk 9:35; cf. Isa 42:1) and again declared that He was well pleased with Him (Mt 17:5; cf. Isa 42:1). Very early in His ministry, Jesus read from Isa 61:1-2 and identified Himself as the Spirit-empowered anointed one described there (Lk 4:16-21). Intertextual connections between this passage, which is Isaiah’s fifth Servant Song, and the first Servant Song make it clear that Jesus was identifying Himself as the Servant of the Lord described in Isaiah’s Servant Songs. When Jesus later retreated from the public eye, Matthew saw in this the fulfillment of Isa 42:2-3, which says the Servant would not promote himself (Mt 12:15-21). 2

J. F. Walvoord (2011): Isaiah presented the revelation concerning the Servant of the Lord. This passage describes Christ Himself: “Here is my servant, whom I uphold, my chosen One in whom I delight; I will put my Spirit on him and he will bring justice to the nations. He will not shout or cry out, or raise his voice in the streets. A bruised reed he will not break, and a smoldering wick he will not snuff out. In faithfulness he will bring forth justice; he will not falter or be discouraged till he establishes justice on earth. In his law the islands will put their hope” (vv. 1–4; cf. partial quotation of this in Matt. 12:18–21). This is the first presentation of Christ as “the servant” in contrast to Israel as the servant of God (Isa. 41:8; 42:19; 43:10; 44:1–2, 21; 45:4; 48:20). The “servant” in this section is none other than Christ Himself, though some regard it as a reference to Israel. This is the first of four songs presenting the Servant as Christ (42:1–9; 49:1–13; 50:4–11; 52:13–53:12). Israel was a blind servant in contrast to Christ, who will bring justice and restoration to the world (42:19). God as the Creator would be the One who gives life to His people (v. 5). God promised to take Israel by the hand, regard them as a covenant people, and make them “a light for the Gentiles” (v. 6). The fact that Christ will be a light to the Gentiles (v. 16) is mentioned in Luke 1:79. God will not only deliver the people as a whole but open individual eyes that were blind and free captives of sin. In keeping with this, in Isaiah a voice of praise to the Lord is recorded, and the Lord’s ultimate victory is described (vv. 10–13). This was fulfilled in Christ’s first coming and will be fulfilled in His second coming.30

220. Isa. 43:11 He is the only Saviour. Acts 4:12
221. Isa. 44:3 He will send the Spirit of God John 16:7, 13
222. Isa. 45:21-25 He is Lord and Saviour Philippians 3:20, Titus 2:13
223. Isa. 45:23 He will be the Judge John 5:22; Romans 14:11
224. Isa. 46:9, 10 Declares things not yet done John 13:19
225. Isa. 48:12 The First and the Last John 1:30, Revelation 1:8, 17

THE FIRST AND THE LAST
“Who has performed and done it, Calling the generations from the beginning? ‘I, the Lord, am THE FIRST; And with THE LAST I am He.’” Isaiah‬ ‭41:4‬
““Thus says the Lord, the King of Israel, And his Redeemer, the Lord of hosts: ‘I am THE FIRST and I am THE LAST; Besides Me there is no God.” Isaiah‬ ‭44:6‬
““Listen to Me, O Jacob, And Israel, My called: I am He, I am THE FIRST, I am also THE LAST.” Isaiah‬ ‭48:12‬

“saying, “I am THE ALPHA and THE OMEGA, THE FIRST and THE LAST,” and, “What you see, write in a book and send it to the seven churches which are in Asia: to Ephesus, to Smyrna, to Pergamos, to Thyatira, to Sardis, to Philadelphia, and to Laodicea.”” Revelation‬ ‭1:11
“And when I saw Him, I fell at His feet as dead. But He laid His right hand on me, saying to me, “Do not be afraid; I am THE FIRST and THE LAST. I am He who lives, AND WAS DEAD(Jesus), and behold, I am alive forevermore. Amen. And I have the keys of Hades and of Death.” Revelation‬ ‭1:17-18
““And to the angel of the church in Smyrna write, ‘These things says THE FIRST and THE LAST, who WAS DEAD, and came to life:” Revelation‬ ‭2:8
I am THE ALPHA and THE OMEGA, the Beginning and the End, the FIRST and THE LAST.” Revelation 22:13

226. Isa. 48:16, 17 He came as a Teacher John 3:2
227. Isa. 49:1 Called from the womb-His humanity Matthew 1:18
228. Isa. 49:5 A Servant from the womb. Luke 1:31, Philippians 2:7
229. Isa. 49:6 He will restore Israel Acts 3:19-21; 15:16-17
230. Isa. 49:6 He is Salvation for Israel Luke 2:29-32
231. Isa. 49:6 He is the Light of the Gentiles John 8:12, Acts 13:47
232. Isa. 49:6 He is Salvation unto the ends of the earth Acts 15:7-18
233. Isa. 49:7 He is despised of the Nation John 1:11; 8:48-49; 19:14-15

R. B. CHISHOLM JR. (2019): Isaiah 49:1-13 is the second of Isaiah’s so-called Servant Songs (Isa 42:1-9; 49:1-13; 50:4-9; 52:13–53:12). These Songs describe the ministry of an ideal Israel, an individual who leads sinful, exiled Israel out of bondage and back to its land. This Servant also establishes worldwide justice as he brings the Lord’s deliverance to the nations. The Lord ultimately exalts the Servant, but the Servant must first suffer humiliation on behalf of Israel and “the many” so that they may be reconciled to the Lord. In the progress of biblical revelation, we discover that Jesus the Messiah is the Servant depicted in this Song. of the earth. He tells them of his commission as the Lord’s Servant. He is to mediate a covenant on behalf of the Lord’s exiled people, rescue them from their foreign imprisonment, and lead them home. But the Servant’s mission is not limited to Israel. He will also take the light of God’s salvation to the nations, prompting their kings to honor him. This second Servant Song identifies the Servant specifically as Israel (Isa 49:3). Yet the Servant cannot simply be equated with exiled Israel. Because he delivers exiled Israel from bondage, he must be distinct. He is best identified as an ideal Israel, who restores sinful, exiled Israel to a covenant relationship with the Lord and carries out the Lord’s original design for Israel by extending His salvation to the nations. The NT identifies Jesus as the Servant of Isaiah’s second Servant Song. Simeon identified the infant Jesus as the “light” of God’s revelation who would bring salvation to the nations (Lk 2:30, 32; cf. Isa 49:6). Paul later identified Jesus as this light and viewed his own ministry as taking this light to the nations. Very early in His ministry Jesus read from Isa 61:1-2 and identified Himself as the one who speaks in that passage (cf. Lk 4:16-21). Like the Servant of the Second Song, He will release prisoners (cf. Isa 49:8-13 with Isa 61:1). The apostle John later applied the language of the second Servant Song to the salvation of a multitude from many nations (Rev 7:16-17).2

234. Isa. 50:3 Heaven is clothed in black at His humiliation Luke 23:44, 45
235. Isa. 50:4 He is a learned counselor for the weary Matthew 7:29; 11:28, 29
236. Isa. 50:5 The Servant bound willingly to obedience Matthew 26:39
237. Isa. 50:6 “I gave my back to the smiters.” Matthew 27:26
238. Isa. 50:6 He was smitten on the cheeks Matthew 26:67
239. Isa. 50:6 He was spat upon Matthew 27:30

E. E. JOHNSON (2019): One of the mysteries in the history of creation is God’s permission of a darkened world for humanity. Although Israel was chosen to serve as a light to the nations in darkness (Gn 12:3; Ex 19:4-6), Isa 6 indicates that Israel too was blinded and deepened in the same darkness. Only the Servant will avoid sin, and this testimony discloses how that would happen (50:4-9). That testimony is followed by a word of caution from the prophet for those who fear the Lord in a dark world and those who choose to make their own light (apart from the Lord) in the darkness (50:10-11). The prophet clarifies the two options for them—to listen to the testimony of the Servant or to attempt to enlighten a direction for themselves.2

240. Isa. 52:7 Published good tidings upon mountains Matthew 5:12; 15:29; 28:16
241. Isa. 52:13 The Servant exalted Acts 1:8-11; Eph. 1:19-22, Php. 2:5-9
242. Isa. 52:14 The Servant shockingly abused Luke 18:31-34; Mt. 26:67, 68
243. Isa. 52:15 Nations startled by message of the Servant Luke 18:31-34; Mt. 26:67, 68
244. Isa. 52:15 His blood shed sprinkles nations Hebrews 9:13-14, Rev. 1:5
245. Isa. 53:1 His people would not believe Him John 12:37-38
246. Isa. 53:2 Appearance of an ordinary man Philippians 2:6-8
247. Isa. 53:3 Despised Luke 4:28-29
248. Isa. 53:3 Rejected Matthew 27:21-23
249. Isa. 53:3 Great sorrow and grief Matthew 26:37-38, Luke 19:41, Heb. 4:15
250. Isa. 53:3 Men hide from being associated with Him Mark 14:50-52
251. Isa. 53:4 He would have a healing ministry Matthew 8:16-17
252. Isa. 53:4 Thought to be cursed by God Matthew 26:66; 27:41-43
253. Isa. 53:5 Bears penalty for mankind’s iniquities 2Cor. 5:21, Heb. 2:9
254. Isa. 53:5 His sacrifice provides peace between man and God Colossians 1:20
255. Isa. 53:5 His sacrifice would heal man of sin 1Peter 2:24
256. Isa. 53:6 He would be the sin-bearer for all mankind 1John 2:2; 4:10
257. Isa. 53:6 God’s will that He bear sin for all mankind Galatians 1:4
258. Isa. 53:7 Oppressed and afflicted Matthew 27:27-31
259. Isa. 53:7 Silent before his accusers Matthew 27:12-14
260. Isa. 53:7 Sacrificial lamb John 1:29, 1Peter 1:18-19
261. Isa. 53:8 Confined and persecuted Matthew 26:47-75; 27:1-31
262. Isa. 53:8 He would be judged John 18:13-22
263. Isa. 53:8 Killed Matthew 27:35
264. Isa. 53:8 Dies for the sins of the world 1John 2:2
265. Isa. 53:9 Buried in a rich man’s grave Matthew 27:57
266. Isa. 53:9 Innocent and had done no violence Luke 23:41, John 18:38
267. Isa. 53:9 No deceit in his mouth 1Peter 2:22
268. Isa. 53:10 God’s will that He die for mankind John 18:11
269. Isa. 53:10 An offering for sin Matthew 20:28, Galatians 3:13
270. Isa. 53:10 Resurrected and live forever Romans 6:9
271. Isa. 53:10 He would prosper John 17:1-5
272. Isa. 53:11 God fully satisfied with His suffering John 12:27
273. Isa. 53:11 God’s servant would justify man Romans 5:8-9, 18-19
274. Isa. 53:11 The sin-bearer for all mankind Hebrews 9:28
275. Isa. 53:12 Exalted by God because of his sacrifice Matthew 28:18
276. Isa. 53:12 He would give up his life to save mankind Luke 23:46
277. Isa. 53:12 Numbered with the transgressors Mark 15:27-28; Luke 22:37
278. Isa. 53:12 Sin-bearer for all mankind 1Peter 2:24
279. Isa. 53:12 Intercede to God in behalf of mankind Luke 23:34, Rom. 8:34

M. L. BROWN  (2019): At the center of the gospel message is the atoning, substitutionary death of Jesus the Messiah, and nowhere in the Bible is this theme of vicarious suffering laid out more clearly than in Isa 53. Accordingly, among those who affirm Jesus as the Messiah of Israel, this chapter (or, more precisely, Isa 52:13–53:12) is widely considered to be the most specific messianic prophecy in the Tanakh. While it is not quoted in the New
Testament as frequently as Ps 110,1 it has been pointed to through the centuries as a central messianic prophecy because of its clearly expressed theology of vicarious atonement, its vivid description of the Servant of the Lord being rejected by His own people, and its glorious portrayal of the Servant’s exaltation.

Of this passage, Franz Delitzsch exclaimed, “How many are there whose eyes have been opened when reading this ‘golden passional of the Old Testament evangelist,’ as Polycarp the Lysian calls it! In how many an Israelite has it melted the crust of his heart! It looks as if it had been written beneath the cross upon Golgotha, and was illuminated by the heavenly brightness of the full shēb lîmînî (‘sit at my right hand’).”

According to Hermann Spieckermann, “Five criteria seem central to the idea of vicarious suffering in Isaiah 53: 

a. One person intercedes for the sins of others…. 
b. The one who intercedes for the sins of others is himself sinless and righteous…. 
c. The vicarious act of the one occurs once for all…. 
d. One intercedes for the sins of others of his own will….
e. God brings about the vicarious action of the one for the sins of the others intentionally.” Or, as expressed by Bernd Janowski: “The bottomless depth of this text is reflected in the vicarious event: an innocent one bears the guilt of others, perishes by it, and will nevertheless have ‘success.’”

That Jewish theology developed the concept of the atoning power of the death of the righteous, despite its centrality in Christian theology, indicates just how deep the biblical roots of vicarious suffering can be found, even if they are brought to a distinct climax in Isa 53. The chapter finds striking and specific fulfillment in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. But since there is no reference here to “David” (see, e.g., Ezk 34:23-24; 37:24-25) or to the “stump of Jesse” (see Isa 11:1), one might question on what basis this passage can be identified as messianic. First, Isa 53 connects to the priestly ministry of the Messiah, an essential and important part of his work (see Zch 6:9-
13), and the chapter is filled with priestly language (cf. Paul). Second, the promised exaltation of the Servant (Isa 52:13; 53:12) is in messianic proportions. Third, the Servant of the Lord fulfills the mission of failing Israel, becoming a light to the nations while being rejected by His own people before ultimately regathering and restoring the tribes of Jacob (see Isa 42:1-7; 49:1-7). No one other than the Messiah is tasked with this mission, and it is Isa 53 that opens up the dimensions of just how this will happen, as the people of Israel realize that the One they thought was dying a criminal’s death was actually paying the price for their sins. It is through His wounds that Israel will be healed. F. B. Meyer was correct in saying, “There is only one brow upon which this crown of thorns will fit.”27 It is Jesus of Nazareth, who suffered innocently, died vicariously, was raised gloriously, and will return triumphantly, just as Isaiah foretold. 2

280. Isa. 55:3 Resurrected by God Acts 13:34
281. Isa. 55:4 A witness John 18:37
282. Isa. 55:4 He is a leader and commander Hebrews 2:10
283. Isa. 55:5 God would glorify Him Acts 3:13

R. B. CHISHOLM JR. (2019): Isaiah 55 is important to a study of the OT’s messianic vision for at least two reasons: (1) It anticipates the positive outcome of the ministry of the Suffering Servant, who comes in the person of Jesus the Messiah. His atoning work opens the door to repentance and covenant renewal. (2) The Servant, as described in the first two Servant Songs (42:1-9; 49:1- 13), brings justice to the nations, as does the ideal Davidic king depicted in Isa 11:1-9. Consequently, it is reasonable to equate the Servant with the messianic king of Isa 11 and regard the Servant Songs as messianic. However, some argue that the Davidic promises are democratized in Isa 55:3-5, meaning that Israel replaces an individual Davidic king as God’s instrument of salvation. If so, this affects our understanding of the Servant Songs. That is one of the reasons so many scholars are hesitant to view the Songs as messianic. This essay will attempt to show that the promise is not democratized in Isa 55:3-5, at least not in the way some scholars argue. Rather, the passage envisions the national benefits that result from the realization of the Davidic promises, just as 2Sm 7, the classic text on the Davidic covenant, anticipates.

In Isa 55, the Lord calls Israel to covenant renewal, assuring them that repentance will bring forgiveness of sins and restoration of divine blessing. He promises He will make a new, perpetual covenant with them. This covenant is not democratized in the sense that the Lord’s promises to David are now transferred to the nation Israel. On the contrary, this covenant, which will be mediated through the Suffering Servant of the Lord (see Isa 49:8 ), is rooted in and will bring to fulfillment the Lord’s ancient promises to David that He will exalt His people Israel through His chosen king. This should come as no surprise, since the Suffering Servant and the ideal Davidic king, the Messiah, are one and the same. Isaiah 55 is an important messianic text, for it describes the goal of the Servant’s ministry. Through Him the new covenant is inaugurated and the Davidic promise is realized. 2

284. Isa. 59:16 Intercessor between man and God Matthew 10:32
285. Isa. 59:16 He would come to provide salvation John 6:40
286. Isa. 59:20 He would come to Zion as their Redeemer Luke 2:38
287. Isa. 60:1-3 He would shew light to the Gentiles Acts 26:23
288. Isa. 61:1 The Spirit of God upon him Matthew 3:16-17
289. Isa. 61:1 The Messiah would preach the good news Luke 4:16-21
290. Isa. 61:1 Provide freedom from the bondage of sin John 8:31-36
291. Isa. 61:1-2 Proclaim a period of grace Galatians 4:4-5

E. E. HINDSON (2019): The announcement of the messianic anointing in Isa 61:1-3 introduces the voice of the Messiah who will proclaim the “good news”. That Jesus quoted this passage in the synagogue in Nazareth and applied it to Himself clearly indicates that He understood its messianic implications (Lk 4:16-22). To deny this or to simply limit the voice of the speaker to the role of some other prophet flies in the face of Jesus’ own declaration. Noting the continuity of the Servant’s anointing with the Spirit (Isa 42:1) and that of the Messiah (Isa 11:2), John Oswalt identifies the speaker as the servant/Messiah. Walter Kaiser suggests that the act of anointing is the central factor in the installation of the Anointed One, stating, “Yahweh appoints the Servant and the Spirit anoints him, thereby making one of the earliest constructs of the doctrine of the Trinity.” The Anointed One is “sent” with what Joseph Blenkinsopp calls “five charges that coalesce into one undertaking.” A series of infinitives follows dependent on the verb “sent”: “bind … proclaim … proclaim … comfort … grant” (NASB). Thus, the speaker not only acknowledges His anointing but also describes His evangelistic calling to proclaim “good news” to those who desperately need it most: “afflicted … brokenhearted … captives … prisoners … mourners” (NASB). The message of proclamation in vv. 1-2 is then followed by a description of salvation in v. 3 through a use of what Claus Westermann calls “paronomasia” (a series of contrasts emphasized by a list of “insteads”). Thus, the sent one will grant a garland instead of ashes; gladness instead of mourning; praise instead of fainting (v. 3).2

J. F. Walvoord (2011):  The Servant of the Lord, who is Christ Himself, will have the anointing of the Holy Spirit. “The Spirit of the Sovereign LORD is on me, because the LORD has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim the year of the LORD’s favor and the day of vengeance of our God, to comfort all who mourn” (vv. 1–2). His anointing, like that of Saul and David, will set Him apart as King because the title “Christ” has the meaning of being anointed (cf. Matt. 3:16–17). In Luke 4:18–19, Christ quoted Isaiah 61:1 and part of verse 2 in connection with Himself. Significantly, He stopped the quotation before the mention of “the day of vengeance of our God” (v. 2). The previous verses harmonize with His first coming, but the day of vengeance refers to His second coming. By this, Christ signified the difference between the two events and their prophetic fulfillment. As in other millennial passages, the reconstruction of the cities of Israel is prophesied (vv. 4–6). Not only will material places be restored, but the people of Israel will also be restored as a nation, and aliens will be servants to them. Israel herself will live as “priests of the LORD” (v. 6). Her prosperity included that she would be forgiven her sins and would have a double portion of her inheritance and everlasting joy. Her= prosperity will be a token to the nations of the Lord’s blessings. The prophet himself described his joy in the Lord and enumerated the blessings that God has showered on him (vv. 10–11). These prophecies will be fulfilled primarily in the millennium.

Summary of Messianic Prophecies in Isaiah

The prophecy concerning the virgin birth of Christ should be considered in the context of other messianic prophecies in the whole book of Isaiah. Major future messianic prophecies in Isaiah include the reign of Christ in the kingdom (2:3–5), the virgin birth of Christ (7:14), the joyful reign of Christ (9:2, 7), the rule of Christ over the world (v. 4), Christ as a descendant of Jesse and David (11:1, 10), Christ to be filled with the Spirit (v. 2; 42:1), Christ to judge with righteousness (11:3–5; 42:1, 4), Christ to rule over the nations (11:10), Christ to be gentle to the weak (42:3), Christ to make possible the new covenant (v. 6; 49:8 ), Christ to be a light to the Gentiles and to be worshipped by them (42:6; 49:6–7; 52:15), Christ to be rejected by Israel (49:7; 53:1–3), Christ to be obedient to God and subject to suffering (50:6; 53:7–8 ), Christ to be exalted (52:13; 53:12), Christ to restore Israel and judge the wicked (61:1–3).30

292. Jer. 11:21 Conspiracy to kill Jesus John 7:1, Matthew 21:38

Accordingtothescriptures (2015): Not many commentators apply this verse in Jeremiah to Christ. Most apply it to Jeremiah, and indeed the people of apostate Israel and Judah at that time were speaking that to him. Nevertheless, what many have forgotten, is that many of the prophets, in one form or another of their ministry, exemplified in his own person some one feature or more in the manifold attributes and sufferings of the Messiah to come, and so that which applied to them, was in fact being spoken also of Christ. And this is not hard to discern as this was also clearly spoken of the Messiah in Isaiah 53, that He "was cut off out of the land of the living", and ever so clearly in Daniel 9:27, that at the appointed time "shall Messiah be cut off, but not for himself", no, not for Himself, but "for the transgression of my people was he stricken" (Isaiah 53:. Furthermore, this being conspired in the minds of the detractors, "that his name be no more remembered", would certainly remind us of Psalm 83, where it is written, "Come, and let us cut them off from being a nation; that the name of Israel may be no more in remembrance." Here speaking of Israel, but once again, typified as Christ (Ex. 4:22, Hosea 11:1, Mt. 2:15) whom is identified as Israel, my firstborn Son whom He called out of Egypt, whom through the loins of Israel He was to come as the promised Seed of Abraham. And Christ, foreknowing all things prophesied of this also saying, "the Son of man must suffer many things, and be rejected of the elders, and of the chief priests, and scribes, and be killed, and after three days rise again" (Mark 8:31). And again, "they shall mock him, and shall scourge him, and shall spit upon him, and shall kill him: and the third day he shall rise again." (Mark 10:34) And this being in their mind, we are told, "the Jews sought to kill him" (John 7:1), the Prince of life. And for what purpose? Even the ignorant Caiaphas prophesied that, "it is expedient for us, that one man should die for the people" (John 11:50). And so, Christ died for our sins, He was buried, and rose again from the dead according to the Scriptures. Hallelujah! There are so many riches and treasures and wonders hidden in the Scriptures that they are just too wonderful for me. 3

293. Jer. 23:5-6 Descendant of David Luke 3:23-31
294. Jer. 23:5-6 The Messiah would be both God and Man John 13:13, 1Ti 3:16

M. L. BROWN (2019): Jeremiah 23:5-6 is an important messianic prophecy because: (1) it envisions the coming of the Messianic King on the heels of the return from Babylonian exile, which is in keeping with a larger prophetic
pattern that expected the establishment of God’s glorious kingdom in the aftermath of this return; (2) it explicitly connects the title Branch  with this Davidic King (see further Jer 33:15; cf. also Isa 4:2; Zch 3:8; 6:12; see Zch 6:9-15)2

295. Jer. 31:22 Born of a virgin Matthew 1:18-20
296. Jer. 31:31 The Messiah would be the new covenant Matthew 26:28

JOSH MATHEWS (2019): Jeremiah 31:31-34 is a theologically significant passage for the message of the book of Jeremiah and for the whole Old Testament and New Testament as well. The passage is familiar for its presentation of the new covenant. These four verses include a grouping of features associated with the anticipated new covenant. In Jeremiah, they are intended to instill hope in a future time of restoration from the dismal circumstances God’s people are experiencing. The cluster of features also continues a trajectory of eschatological anticipation that has been advancing in the Tanakh from its earliest chapters, which find their realization in the NT. In the NT, the fulfillment of new covenant expectations is clearly associated with the coming of the Messiah Jesus and with His messianic life and ministry. In Lk 22 Jesus breaks bread and distributes the cup of the new covenant, established by His blood shed for His followers (Lk 22:20; 1Co 11:25). In 2Co 3 Paul assures his readers that, as ministers of the new covenant, they have confidence toward God through the Messiah Jesus. In the Messiah, and only in the Messiah, the veil over the old covenant is set aside, bringing about the Spirit-empowered freedom and transformation of the new covenant (2Co 3:4-18). The most extensive expression of the new covenant in the NT is in Hebrews, which quotes Jer 31 repeatedly. The great high priestly sacrifice and ministry of Jesus and the new covenant He established and continues to mediate are presented as profoundly superior to the old covenant and its priesthood (Heb 7:22–10:18).

This survey of several key texts, a few from the Pentateuch and several from Jeremiah, inform the understanding of Jer 31:31-34 as a messianic text. Various terms and themes occur throughout these passages, and together they form a cluster related to the anticipation of a new covenant. Leading up to the Book of Consolation and its central new covenant text, there is a thread of eschatological hope running through Jeremiah’s prophetic message of judgment. Already by the beginning of chap. 30 there has appeared a great deal of content influencing this understanding of what new covenant expectation entails. Then in chaps. 30–33 these future-oriented expectations burst forth with God’s own eschatological resolution to the sin problem. Until the new covenant came, this problem remained without any solution, and the history of God’s relationship with His people was riddled with failedattempts to obey God’s law and keep the stipulations of the covenant. The solution, which must be a work of the Lord Himself, will be found in a new covenant in the distant future from Jeremiah’s perspective. Jeremiah 31:31-34 summarizes this new covenant hope of a work of God that is fundamentally different from the old covenant. The Scripture context leading up to and surrounding this passage makes clear an integral element of this new covenant work of God: the coming of His Messianic King. In this new covenant situation, instead of law written on tablets of stone, or sin written on uncircumcised hearts of stone, God’s Torah will be within His people and written on their hearts. They will no longer need to mediate the knowledge of Yahweh for each other, because by the coming and mediation of the Righteous Branch of David, all will know Him. This new covenant will resolve the problem of sin, which has been insurmountable through the entire life of God’s people. Wrongdoing will be forgiven, and sin will be forgotten forever. The new covenant has come, the Messianic King is seated at the right hand of His Father, and He will return to take up His eternal throne.2


297. Jer. 33:14-15 Descendant of David Luke 3:23-31
298. Eze.34:23-24 Descendant of David Matthew 1:1
299. Eze.37:24-25 Descendant of David Luke 1:31-33
300. Dan. 2:44-45 The Stone that shall break the kingdoms Matthew 21:44

A. M. WOODS (2019): Daniel was a prophet whom God used in a strategic way to bless His chosen people, the nation of Israel, during a difficult period in her history known as the Babylonian captivity. During that era, the nation had been removed from her homeland and instead found herself captive roughly 350 miles to the east of Jerusalem. Because the nation of Israel had only limited prophetic information governing this era, God raised up Daniel to
prophetically reveal and explain it. Chapter 1 relates how Daniel and his three friends had been taken into captivity by the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar. Chapters 2-7 form an independent literary unit. Not only does the language shift from Hebrew to Aramaic, but also this section is organized as a chiasm.This prophecy constitutes a tremendous source of encouragement for the  nation of Israel throughout the millennia comprising the times of the
Gentiles. Although the nation would be oppressed by various political powers, God intends to preserve Israel as a distinct nation and eventually establish His kingdom through them. God will ultimately fulfill His Word according to His own timetable. On the horizon is a coming kingdom that cannot be shaken that God’s people will inherit. While the message to the Jewish people would be one of comfort, the message to the Gentile nations would be one of warning. Although they may now have the upper hand in history, their day in the sun will one day come to an end. How important, therefore, it is for us to heed this warning and not live for the fleeting values of this world but, rather, for the values of God’s coming and eternal kingdom.2

301. Dan. 7:13-14 He would ascend into heaven Acts 1:9-11
302. Dan. 7:13-14 Highly exalted Ephesians 1:20-22
303. Dan. 7:13-14 His dominion would be everlasting Luke 1:31-33

J. P. TANNER (2019): One of the most profound messianic prophecies of the Old Testament appears in Daniel 7:13-14. In this passage, an individual referred to as “One like a son of man” is presented before the “Ancient of Days” and given an everlasting kingdom over all nations who will “serve” Him. In this passage, Daniel records what he saw in a night vision,

I continued watching in the night visions, and I saw One like a son of man coming with the clouds of heaven. He approached the Ancient of Days and was escorted before Him. He was given authority to rule, and glory, and a kingdom; so that those of every people, nation, and language should serve Him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion that will not pass away, and His kingdom is one that will not be destroyed.

Although the phrase “one like a son of man” is strikingly similar to Jesus’ favorite self-designation, the Son of Man, there is great debate in scholarly circles as to the identity of the one mentioned in Dan 7:13, as well as to how and when the fulfillment takes place. The traditional Christian opinion has been to identify Daniel’s “one like a son of man” with Jesus Christ, and even Jewish expositors—although they reject the identification with Jesus—have historically understood this as a reference to the Messiah. Critical scholars, on the other hand, have rejected the messianic view and have offered several alternative interpretations in its place. Nevertheless, the traditional Christian interpretation that sees the ultimate fulfillment in Messiah Jesus is the most defensible position and is the view expounded in this article. 

Daniel 7:13-14 predicts that “One like a son of man” will come with the clouds of heaven, and He will be given “authority to rule, and glory, and a kingdom; so that those of every people, nation, and language should serve Him.” This passage most certainly finds its fulfillment in Messiah Jesus, despite the skepticism of critical scholars. Their skepticism stems from a presupposition that the book of Daniel was not authored by the prophet Daniel in the sixth century BC, but rather was composed about 165 BC during the Jewish persecution of Antiochus IV Epiphanes. This theory colors all other interpretations of the book, including Dan 7. Hence, they interpret the “little horn” of Dan 7 as Antiochus IV and propose various nonmessianic identifications for “one like a son of man” that they consider commensurate with this era. Yet their dating of the book is entirely wrong, and Daniel did write the book bearing his name, much of which contains authentic prophecies.2

J. F Walvoord (2012): Daniel 7:13–14 is the climax of Daniel’s vision. Again, heaven rather than earth is in view. verse 13 follows verse 10 chronologically. verses 11–12 are explanatory and do not advance the narrative. Porteous correctly notes, “The interposition, however, of vv. 11 and 12 is necessary to express the author’s meaning.” One described as “like a son of man,” in obvious contrast with the beasts and the little horn, comes before the throne of the Ancient of Days, attended by the clouds of heaven. The purpose of this heavenly presentation is indicated in verse 14 where the Son of Man is given a worldwide kingdom involving all peoples. In contrast to the preceding kingdoms, this is a kingdom that “shall not be destroyed.” This kingdom is obviously the expression of divine sovereignty dealing dramatically with the human situation in a way that introduces the eternal state where God is manifestly supreme in His government of the universe.

Conservative scholars are agreed that the Son of Man is a picture of the Lord Jesus Christ rather than an angelic agency.55 The description of Him as being worthy of ruling all nations is obviously in keeping with many passages in the Bible referring to the millennial rule of Jesus Christ, for example, Psalm 2:6–9 and Isaiah 11. Like the scene in Revelation 4–5, Christ is portrayed as a separate person from God the Father. The expression that He is attended by “clouds of heaven” implies His deity (1 Thess. 4:17). A parallel appears in Revelation 1:7, “Behold, he is coming with the clouds,” in fulfillment of Acts 1 where in His ascension Christ was received by a cloud and the angels tell the disciples that Christ “will come in the same way as you saw him go into heaven” (Acts 1:9–11). Clouds in Scripture are frequently characteristic of revelation of deity (Exod. 13:21–22; 19:9, 16; 1 Kings 8:10–11; Isa. 19:1; Jer. 4:13; Ezek. 10:4; Matt. 24:30; 26:64; Mark 13:26). Some liberal scholars argue that the lack of the de????nite article with the title “son of man” means that this was merely a human being who appeared to Daniel.56 Although there might be some linguistic support for this idea, Jesus’ frequent use of this title for Himself in the New Testament is the divine commentary on the phrase (cf. Matt. 8:20; 9:6; 10:23; 11:19; 12:8, 32, 40; 13:37, 41; 16:13, 27, 28; 17:9, 12, 22, etc.). “Son of Man” was, in fact, Jesus’ favorite description of Himself during His earthly ministry. In verse 13, the Son of Man is presented as being near the Ancient of Days, and in verse 14 He is given dominion over all peoples and nations. This could not be an angel, nor could it be the body of saints, as it corresponds clearly to other Scriptures that predict that Christ will rule over all nations (Ps. 72:11; Rev. 19:15–16). Only Christ will come with clouds of heaven, and be the King of kings and Lord of lords over all nations throughout eternity.30

304. Dan. 9:24 To make an end to sins Galatians 1:3-5
305. Dan. 9:24 To make reconciliation for iniquity Romans 5:10, 2Cor. 5:18-21
306. Dan. 9:24 He would be holy Luke 1:35
307. Dan. 9:25 His announcement John 12:12-13
308. Dan. 9:26 Cut off Matthew 16:21; 21:38-39
309. Dan. 9:26 Die for the sins of the world Hebrews 2:9
310. Dan. 9:26 Killed before the destruction of the temple Matthew 27:50-51

K. D. ZUBER (2019): It would be difficult to exaggerate the significance of this prophecy. Many would argue that this is the key text, both for understanding the person and work of the Messiah and also for comprehending the Lord’s whole unfolding program for His chosen nation, Israel. “The study of Daniel, and especially this chapter, is the key to understanding the prophetic Scriptures,” wrote John F. Walvoord. He added, “the third vision of Daniel … provides one of the most important keys to understanding the Scriptures as a whole. In many respects, this is the high point of the book of Daniel. 2

We come now to what might be the most difficult, but at the same time, greatest, most rewarding, and amazing prophecy given by Daniel in regards to the date of the coming of the messiah, which was fulfilled in Jesus Christ.

Rockofageschurch: Danie

Hebrew Calendar After Babylonian Invasion

In 605 B.C. the Babylonians invaded Judah, defeated the nation of Israel and took many captive. 2 Kings 24:10-20 describes the invasion of the Babylonian army into the city of Jerusalem, Jehoiachin was taken captive and a new king, Zedekiah, was installed. The new king was the uncle of the Babylonian king (2 Kings 24:17). He was a puppet king. After the invasion the names of the months in the Jewish calendar changed. For example, in Nehemiah 2:1 and Esther 3:7 we discover that the name of the first month is now Nisan. The names of other months were changed, such as Sivan, the third month (Esther 8:9). Elul is the sixth month (Nehemiah 6:15). Kislev is the eighth month (Nehemiah 1:1). The tenth month is Tevet (Esther 2:16). Shevat is now included (Zechariah 1:7). Adar is the twelfth month (Ezra 6:15; Esther 3:7, 13; 8:12; 9:1, 15, 17, 19, 21). Note that Nehemiah 1:1 the Hebrew word that is translated as Nisan in the Bible was a word borrowed from the Babylonian month of Nisanu. In summary, the Jewish calendar changed as a result of the Babylonian conquest and captivity. This point is very important since the month Abib became Nisan and the month Ethanim became Tishri. That is, the Jews followed the Babylonian calendar.



Babylonian and Hebrew Calendars Compared – Similarities

Both the Babylonian and Hebrew calendar were lunar calendars and were off by approximately 11.2468 days in non-leap years in comparison to the solar year. Consequently, an additional month was added to the calendars periodically every two or three years to make the calendar more accurate. The insertion of this extra month, called an intercalary month, occurred in the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th and 19th years of the Metonic cycle. This cycle is referred to technically as an intercalary cycle of 19-year years. It is composed of 12 common years and seven leap years. The additional months are added in the seven leap years. A quick calculation demonstrates that over nineteen years the calendar is off by 206.775 days (11.2468 days/year x 19 years = 213.6892 days). By adding seven months of an average of 30 days the calendar is almost corrected (7 months x 30 days/month = 210 days). Then it was off by only 3.6892 days (213.6892 days – 210 = 3.6892 days).



Babylonian and Hebrew Compared – Differences

While the names of the months in the Babylonian and Hebrew calendars are identical, except the spelling, there were differences. First, Parker and Dubberstein have demonstrated from archeological data that the Babylonian lunar calendar started with the reign of Nabonassar in 747 B.C. in the month of Nisan 1.

Hebrew Civil Calendar Used In Nehemiah 2:1

The Hebrews had both a civil and a religious calendar which were shifted by six months. The religious calendar started with Nisan 1 (Exodus 12:2; Leviticus 23:7). The civil calendar started with the month of Tishri 1. In the tractate, Rosh Hashanah of the Babylonian Talmud very explicitly states that the regnal year of kings began on Nisan 1. This may seem to be incorrect, but we must remember that Israel was a theocracy.

Observe that when Nehemiah 2:1 refers to Nisan as the date of the decree to rebuild and restore the city of Jerusalem, it is referring to the middle of the Jewish civil calendar since Nehemiah 1:1 states that the king was reigning in the month of “Chislev, in the twentieth year.” Chislev is an alternate name for Kislev. The twentieth year of King Artaxerxes occurred in both Chislev (Nov./Dec.) and Nisan (Mar./Apr.). That is, the civil year was Tishri-to-Tishri. The two calendars were offset by six lunar months.

This reveals that the author of Nehemiah is using the Hebrew civil year to track the reign of Nehemiah and not the Babylonian calendar. Therefore, updates to the civil calendar are what we are interested in.



Uncertainty Timing of Nisan 1, 444 B.C.

Parker and Dubberstein indicate that based on extensive archeological data that the Babylonian years of 445 B.C. and 443 B.C. were intercalary years or leap years in which the Babylonian calendar was updated by the intercalary month of Addaru II, just prior to Nisanu. Consequently, we discover that the Babylonians did not recognize the year of 444 B.C. was a leap year. That is, Nisanu 444 B.C. was not preceded by the intercalary month of Addaru II. The correction did not occur until the following year of 443 B.C.

It is highly unlikely that the Hebrew calendar differed from the Babylonian calendar since they were still ruled by the Medo-Persians and under the rule of King Artaxerxes I. This means the Hebrew calendar of 444 B.C. would not have had the additional intercalary month of Adar 2 inserted before Nisan. This is contrary to modern Hebrew calendar software which assumes that 444 B.C. is a leap year and adds Adar 2 before the month of Nisan. Modern Hebrew calendar calculations are based on a formal process that was adopted later. Consequently, modern Hebrew calendar software computes backwards into the B.C. era and concludes that 444 B.C. was a leap year, but the archeological data indicates that this did not occur. Parker and Dubberstein provide a great amount of archeological data that proves there were some significant errors in the updates to the Babylonian calendar. Here is a concluding comment,

These letters also make it clear that no established system which fixed the seven interactions [intercalary months] at definite points within the nineteen-year period existed at the beginning of the Persian period . . .In the fourth century — in 367 B.C. according to our scheme but possibly as early as 383 B.C. — the intercalations became standardized, and the nineteenth-year cycle thus came into being.

Note that the standardization occurred after the year of 444 B.C. That is, we should not be surprised that irregularities occurred in the year of 444 B.C. The Jewish Encyclopedia reports that inaccuracies also occurred in the Hebrew calendar. Every two or three years, as the case might be, an extra month was intercalated. The intercalation seems to have depended on actual calculation of the relative lengths of the solar and lunar years, which were handed down by tradition in the patriarchal family. Moreover, it was possible to judge by the grain harvest. If the month of Nisan arrived and the sun was at such a distance from the vernal equinox that it could not reach it by the 16th of the month, then this month was not called Nisan, but Adar Sheni (second). On the evening before the announcement of the intercalation, the patriarch assembled certain scholars who assisted in the decision. It was then announced to the various Jewish communities by letters. To this epistle was added the reason for the intercalation. A copy of such a letter of Rabbi Gamaliel is preserved in the Talmud (Sanh. xi. 2). The country people and the inhabitants of Babylonia were informed of the beginning of the month by fire signals, which were readily carried from station to station in the mountain country. These signals could not be carried to the exiles in Egypt, Asia Minor, and Greece, who, being accordingly left in doubt, celebrated two days as the new moon. The Sanhedrin tract of the Talmud reveals that sometimes Adar 2 or an intercalary month was skipped altogether and implemented the next year.

But we are not . . . to suppose that Nisan was always officially fixed by the strict astronomical rule just mentioned. The actual practice is . . . represented by the Talmudic tract Sanhedrin, 10b-13b, according to which the Sanhedrin, when considering whether to intercalate or not, might have regard to the state of the roads, the bridges, and the Passover ovens, to the possibilities of pilgrims who had already started arriving in time for the Passover, to the growth of the kids, lambs, and pigeons, of the corn and of the fruit, and to the number of days that had to elapse before the equinox. According to some rabbis, intercalation was to be avoided in a year of famine or in a sabbatical year, and a court might be influenced by the fact that the next year would be, or the last had been, a sabbatical year. We must, therefore, allow some margin of uncertainty in selecting the month which we are to regard as having been Nisan in a particular year. Today computers are used to calculate the correct month, day and year of events back into the 7th and 4th century B.C. based on mathematical algorithms. Those mathematical equations do not allow for irregularities in the actual updates to the calendar. Therefore, in a study such as this one, the mathematical equations will not give us the correct calendar information. Jack Finegan captures the problem with this brief comment,

. . . caution is advised in the use of calendars and astronomy for chronological purposes.

That is, sophisticated Hebrew calendars most likely will not give the correct calendar information about the actual day on which Nisan 1 occurred before the 4th century B.C. Therefore, it is an error to conclude that modern Hebrew calendar software can be trusted to accurately report what actually occurred in the year of 444 B.C. Consequently, it is concluded that the Babylonian archeological data will be trusted and not modern Hebrew calendars to give us the start date of Nisan 1, 444 B.C. Further, we conclude that the Babylonian and Hebrew years of 444 B.C. were not considered to be leap years in that year. Therefore, the month of Nisan in the year of 444 B.C. was proceeded by the additional intercalary month Adar 2.



As a result, the start date of Nisan 1, 444 B.C. or Nisan 1, 3317 was declared to have started on February 27, 444 B.C. in the Gregorian calendar. The February 27, 444 B.C. date results from observing that the month of Adar 2 which contains 29 days must be manually subtracted from Nisan 1, 444 B.C. to obtain the correct day and month in the Hebrew calendar since the Babylonian and Hebrew calendars are off by one month compared to the modern Babylonian and Hebrew computerized calendars. Modern computerized Hebrew calendars assume that the month Nisan in the year 444 B.C. occurred per their algorithms. But the month of Nissan in 444 B.C. started 29 days earlier. That corresponds to the first day of the month of Adar 2 in modern computer algorithms. Therefore, to compensate we must use the date of 1 Adar 2, 3317 in the Hebrew calendar. This pulls Nissan 1 backward and the date corresponds to Nisan 1 is February 27, 444 B.C.






Calculating the date of  the messiah's "cut off", starting from Artaxerxes' decree in 444 BC to reconstruct Jerusalem

J. E. Walvoord (2012): The complicated computation is based upon prophetic years of 360 days totaling 173,880 days. This would be exactly 483 years according to biblical chronology. It is customary for the Jews to have twelve months of 360 days each and then to insert a thirteenth month occasionally when necessary to correct the calendar. The use of the 360-day year is confirmed by the forty-two months of the great tribulation (Rev. 11:2; 13:5) being equated with 1,260 days (Rev. 11:3; 12:6). Accordingly, the best endpoint for the sixty-nine sevens is shortly before Christ’s death anticipated in Daniel 9:26.  To add Daniel’s 69 weeks of years to Nisan of 444 BC, the biblical years must first be converted into Julian years. This can be done by simplifying the 483 biblical years into 173,880 days (483 multiplied by 360) and then converting these days into Julian years, which results in 476 Julian years and 21 days (173,880 divided by 365.25). Because Artaxerxes’ decree was issued in the spring of 444 BC, adding 476 years and 21 days to this event concludes in the year AD 33. Understanding the meaning of this calculation is one of the most phenomenal discoveries the human mind can find, for when considering the two popular choices among scholars for the date of Christ’s crucifixion – AD 30 and AD 33 – the historical and textual evidence demand that “the crucifixion could not have happened in AD 30, leaving April… AD 33 as the only possible year for the crucifixion.” 

Applying biblical instead of Gregorian years

Since Daniel lived millennia before the use of the Gregorian calendar and centuries before the Julian calendar, it is questionable to apply such a modern standard onto an ancient text. Incorporating biblical years of 360-days instead of Gregorian years results in the definition of ‘69 weeks of years’ being shorter by 2,536.9 days, or approximately seven Gregorian years! Genesis and Revelation appear to both incorporate 360-day years. An intriguing fact concerning this subject is that even the prominent scientist Isaac Newton recognized Daniel’s “reckoning [of] a time for a Calendar year of 360 days.” Though Anderson was correct in his use of biblical years, he assigned an incorrect date for Artaxerxes’ decree to rebuild Jerusalem. Because Nehemiah notes that the decree was issued “in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes the king” (Neh. 2:1) and Artaxerxes officially began his reign in 465 BC, Anderson naturally calculated Artaxerxes’ twentieth year of reign as 445 BC. However, this conclusion fails to incorporate the standard practice during the time of Nehemiah which distinguished between a king’s year of accession and his official first year of reign. Historians Horn and Wood note the following:

During the fifth century B.C… the Persians used the accession-year system, calling the interval between the accession of a king and the next New Year's Day “accession year,” the Egyptians called the interval between the king's accession and the next Egyptian New Year's Day “year 1.” Therefore the Egyptians began any regnal year of a Persian king several months earlier than the Persians themselves did.

Hence, the time between a king’s accession and the end of that same year was considered his ‘accession year’ because it could not be classified as a full year of reign. Therefore, the first full calendar year would be considered the king’s ‘first year of reign.’ Though not exactly the same, a modern example of this sort of dating would be to label January 20, 2016 to December 31, 2016 as president Trump’s ‘accession year’ and to label January 1, 2017 to December 31, 2017 as his official ‘first year of reign.’ An ancient document known as the Ptolemaic Canon, which records the reigns of various kings, indicates that Artaxerxes began his rule directly after his father’s death on December 16, 465 BC. Although the orthodox Hebrew year begins in the Jewish month Nisan (March/April), extrabiblical records indicate that the Jews of Nehemiah’s time and location began their year in the month of Tishri (September/October). This can also be seen by the biblical text itself, as Nehemiah 1:1 took place in “the month Chisleu [Kislev], in the twentieth year [of Artaxerxes’ reign]” (Neh. 1:1). However, the second chapter of Nehemiah begins by noting that it was “the month Nisan, in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes the king” (Neh. 2:1). Since the context demands that Nehemiah 2:1 occurred after Nehemiah 1:1, the only valid explanation for why the month of Kislev would have occurred earlier than Nisan in the same year is if Nehemiah was using a Hebrew calendar which began in Tishri. Since Artaxerxes began his reign several months after the Jewish year had already started in 465 BC, Nehemiah would have classified his first year of reign as occurring in Tishri of 465 BC to Tishri of 464 BC. Hence, Nisan of the twentieth year of Artaxerxes’ reign would have been in March of 444 BC.

Since Anderson started a year too soon with his calculations, his conclusion was in error by one year. This resulted in him asserting that “the Passover of the crucifixion therefore was in A.D. 32, when Christ was betrayed on the night of the Paschal Supper, and put to death on the day of the Paschal Feast.” As noted by Hoehner, “the A.D. 32 date for the crucifixion is untenable. It would mean that Christ was crucified on either a Sunday or Monday.” Hence, Anderson’s miscalculation of the timing of Artaxerxes’ decree proved to be fatal for his position. Anderson also made the mistake of adding the incorrect number of days between Artaxerxes’ decree and the arrival of Christ, but this is discussed further in the analysis of Hoehner’s interpretation because he too made this mistake.

Another researcher's finding, Hoehners, played an essential role in discovering a textually and historically sound interpretation of Daniel 9:24-27. While Anderson did well to popularize the use of biblical years instead of Gregorian years, the primary contribution made by Hoehner was the recognition of Artaxerxes' twentieth year of reign as being 444 BC instead of 445 BC. Both textual data from Nehemiah and ancient documents support the position that the Jews living under Artaxerxes' rule utilized the accession year system when dating kings and that their year would have begun sometime in the Julian month September. When these factors are taken into account, along with the fact that Artaxerxes rose to power in December of 465 BC, the evidence supports the position that "the month Nisan, in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes the king" (Neh. 2:1) would correlate to March of 444 BC. Hoehner's recognition of this discrepancy provided a textually and historically coherent interpretation of Daniel's 70-week prophecy by enabling Artaxerxes' 444 BC decree to act as a successful terminus a quo and conclude in the spring of AD 33, which is a valid date for Christ's presentation as Messiah and crucifixion. Though Hoehner was correct in his revision of Anderson's position, he made two errors in his calculation. Hoehner’s most significant error was that he added the wrong number of days to Artaxerxes’ decree. As noted earlier, 483 biblical years equates to a total of 173,880 days. When examining Hoehener’s calculation, however, it is apparent that he mistakenly added 173,883 days to Artaxerxes’ decree. The reason for Hoehner's mathematical error is related to his perplexing equation used to add Daniel's 69 weeks of years to Artaxerxes' decree, as demonstrated by the following statement: Multiplying the sixty-nine weeks by seven years for each week by 360 days gives a total of 173,880 days. The difference between 444 B.C. and A.D. 33, then, is 476 solar years. By multiplying 476 by 365.24219879 or by 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 45.975 seconds, one comes to 173,855.28662404 days or 173,855 days, 6 hours, 52 minutes, 44 seconds. This leaves only 25 days to be accounted for between 444 B.C. and A.D. 33. By adding the 25 days to March 5 (of 444 B.C.), one comes to March 30 (of A.D. 33) which was Nisan 10 in A.D. 33. This is the triumphal entry of Jesus into Jerusalem.1

G.Gunn (2010): In calculating the terminus ad quem relative to the various Persian decrees, most conservative interpreters, certainly those who are dispensational, assume that the years are normal, literal years. But just how does one understand a ―normal, literal year‖? If we presume a hermeneutic based on authorial intent, another way of stating this question might be, how would Daniel have understood a ―normal, literal year‖? To many interpreters the answer would be simple: A year consists of 365 days. This well-known formula (365 days = 1 year) causes a problem for the position of Anderson that the terminus a quo is Artaxerxes‘ decree to Nehemiah. This decree is variously dated either to 445 BC or to 444 BC. However, these dates are too late for the terminus ad quem to expire sometime during the life and ministry of Jesus, since 483 years after 445/44 BC results in a date of AD 39/40, several years after Jesus‘ crucifixion. Anderson, however, proposed a solution to this problem. He posited that the ―years in the heptads of Daniel 9 were ―prophetic years that consisted of 360 days each. Thus, each ―prophetic year would be just slightly over 5 days shorter than a solar year. Anderson found justification for the 360 day year both in the traditions of ancient near eastern calendar systems (ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, etc.) and in the observation that the final heptad, assuming that it is the same as the eschatological tribulation period, is defined Scripturally as 1,260 + 1,260 days in the book of Revelation (Rev 11:3; 12:6). When the heptads are viewed in terms of years consisting of 360 days each, then the first sixty-nine heptads would be equivalent to 483 years x 360 days per year, or 173,880 days. By contrast, the solar year calculation has 483 years x 365 days per year, or 176,295 days. Thus, the sixty-nine heptads according to the ―prophetic year are shorter by 2,415 days, or 6.6 solar years. This brings the terminus ad quem to the year AD 32/33, very likely the very year of Jesus‘ crucifixion. This method of calculating the heptads of Daniel 9 has found favor with many dispensational authors, but is not without difficulty. The greatest difficulty with this method of calculation is that the time units of the prophecy are expressed in heptads of years, not in days. Even though the calendar of ancient Israel was a lunar calendar with 360 days in a year, they still made periodic adjustments by adding an occasional extra month, so that the loss of days would not accumulate over the passage of many years and throw the seasons into the wrong months. Any faithful Jew attempting to track the time for the arrival of the Messiah based on this prophecy would likely be counting years, not days. The greatest argument in favor of this method of calculation is the evidence from Revelation that three and one-half years is equal to 1,260 days (Rev 11:3; 12:6). So, while Anderson‘s ―solution‖ is clever, and perhaps helpful, it is certainly
not beyond criticism. 

The decree of Artaxerxes to Nehemiah was dated by Sir Robert Anderson at 445 BC and by Hoehner at 444 BC. Hoehner‘s chronology appears to correct some features of Anderson‘s, but he basically follows Anderson‘s line of reasoning in calculating the time from the terminus a quo to the terminus ad quem. The problem Anderson dealt with had to do with the fact that 483 years (viz. sixty-nine heptads) after 445 BC resulted in a terminus ad quem of the year AD 39. There is no way that anyone can reasonably say the Messiah came in AD 39, much less that He was crucified after that year. Anderson posited a solution to this enigma by proposing that the years in these heptads consisted of 360-day years, rather than 365-day years. Though this solution is not entirely without difficulty, it is, in this writer‘s opinion the best solution to the problem of the terminus a quo and the terminus ad quem. Both Anderson and Hoehner, when using a 360-day year calculation, place the terminus ad quem precisely, to the very day, on the day of Christ‘s triumphal entry. The strongest support for the idea of a ―prophetic 360- day year comes from the observation that the final heptad, assuming that it is the same as the eschatological tribulation period, is defined Scripturally as 1,260 days plus 1,260 days in the book of Revelation (Rev 11:3; 12:6).35 When the heptads are viewed in terms of years consisting of 360 days each, then the first sixty-nine heptads would be equivalent to 483 years x 360 days per year, or 173,880 days. By contrast, the solar year calculation has 483 years x 365 days per year, or 176,295 days. Thus, the sixty-nine heptads according to the ―prophetic year‖ are shorter by 2,415 days, or 6.6 solar years. This brings the terminus ad quem to the year AD 32/33, very likely the very year of Jesus‘ crucifixion.

One final item in verse 25 should be addressed, namely the significance of the initial seven heptads (or 49 years). The final clause of verse 25 is probably intended to be a description of the goal of the initial seven heptads: ―It will be built again, with plaza and moat, even in times of distress. This is a reference to the outcome of Nehemiah‘s work of rebuilding the city‘s defenses. Since the terminus a quo had specifically to do with a decree permitting this very thing, it is entirely appropriate that this intermediate goal be mentioned in the chronology of the prophecy. The ―seven heptads and sixty-two heptads‖ can be diagrammed as follows:



The question of whether there is a gap between the sixty-ninth and seventieth heptads has to do with the events prophesied in verse 26. Three things are predicted to occur after ( י???? ח ֵ ) the sixty-ninth heptad. That they were to occur after the sixty-ninth, must have seemed to Daniel as if they were to occur at some point during the seventieth, i.e., within the space of a seven-year period. These three things are: 

1. Messiah will be cut off and have nothing; 
2. the people of the prince who is to come will destroy the city and the sanctuary; and 
3. to the end there will be war; desolations are determined.

Put more simply, after the sixty-ninth heptad will follow: 

1. the crucifixion, 
2. the destruction of Jerusalem, 
3. continual warfare and desolation ―until the end. 11

The endpoint is the coming of the “Messiah the Prince.” The Hebrew word for “prince” is nagid, which actually means “king.” Now in the Gospels, on many occasions, people tried to take Jesus and make Him king by force. He did not allow that to happen until on a particular day, during His triumphal entry into Jerusalem ( now called Palm Sunday), four days before His crucifixion.25

J. E. Walvoord (2012): Though different interpretations of Daniel 9:24-27 have abounded throughout the centuries, the correct position must be validated by the textual and historical data. 

1. the decree issued by Artaxerxes in 444 BC is the only option that fulfills the specifics of the decree predicted by Daniel, 
2. incorporating biblical years of 360 days instead of Gregorian years affirms a consistent hermeneutic concerning prophecy, and 
3. the event which best fulfills the details of the terminus of Daniel’s 69 weeks is Christ’s Passion Week in AD 33. 1

JOHN F. WALVOORD (1990): If 444 BC is accepted as the beginning date of the 490 years, the 483 years would culminate in the year AD 33 where recent scholarship has placed the probable time of the death of Christ. In interpretation the Bible authorizes the use of the prophetic year of 360 days. The 360 days are multiplied by 483 years, or the 490 years minus seven. The computation comes out at AD 33. The concept that the prophetic year is 360 days is confirmed by the 1,260 days (Rev. 11:3; 12:6), with the forty-two months (11:2; 13:5), and with a time, times and half a time, or three and a half years (Dan. 7:25; 12:7; Rev. 12:14). 26

Neverthirsty: Since the length of the prophecy is 476 years and approximately 24.7 days, we will add 476 years to 444 B.C. and obtain February 27, A.D. 33, in the Gregorian calendar. Remember that there is only one year between 1 B.C. and A.D. 1. Next we add 24.7 days and arrive at March 24, A.D. 33 in the Gregorian calendar, or Nisan 6 in the Jewish year of 3793. Note the month of February in A.D. 33 has only 28 days. The date of Nisan 6, 3793, corresponds to the Thursday before Jesus’ betrayal by Judas. Note that Nisan 6 began on Wednesday evening at 6:00 pm since the Jewish day started at 6:00 pm. So, Nisan 6 occurs during the morning and afternoon of March 24, and Nisan 7 begins at 6:00 pm. Nisan 6 may also correspond to the day the Chief Priest and Pharisees finally gave orders to report Jesus to them so that they could murder Him (John 11:47-53, 57).

John 11:57 (NASB): Now the chief priests and the Pharisees had given orders that if anyone knew where He was, he was to report it, so that they might seize Him.

Now we will check the accuracy of this date by checking the timeline of the last week before Jesus’ crucifixion. The date of Nisan 6, 3793 or March 24, A.D. 33 corresponds to the Thursday before Jesus’ Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem. According to John 12:1 Jesus arrived at the home of Mary, Martha and Lazarus six days before the Triumphal Entry, or on Saturday, Nisan 8. The Triumphal Entry occurred on Monday, Nisan 10. Jesus died on Friday, Nisan 14.



Friday (Nisan 7, March 25). First, we should notice that Jesus arrived in Jerusalem on Friday, Nisan 8, since John 12:1 states the Passover was only six days away (see chart “Last Week of Jesus’ Life”). Saturday (Nisan 8, March 26). John 12:9-11 tells us that a large crowd of the Jews learned where Jesus was located and came to Him. We are not told what happened, except that now the chief priests knew where He was located. Sunday (Nisan 9, March 27). John 12:12 tells that it is next day. It is the day of the Triumphal Entry of Jesus. That would correspond to either the evening of Saturday, Nisan 8 or Sunday morning of Nisan 9. Most likely the Triumphal Entry occurred on Sunday since there was a crowd with children. Jesus also visited the temple (Mark 11:11). That is also the general opinion of scholars. Monday (Nisan 10, March 28). Mark 11:12 refers to the “next day,” on the morning of Monday, Nisan 10, after the Triumphal Entry. Mark says that Jesus cursed a fig tree and entered the temple . Tuesday (Nisan 11, March 29). In Mark 11:20, we read about another “next day,” or the morning of Tuesday, Nisan 11. The fig tree is now withered and Jesus teaches in the temple. Wednesday (Nisan 12, March 30). Mark 14:1 gives us some more time information. We are told there are two days before the Passover. Most likely this information corresponds to Tuesday morning, Nisan 12. Since the Jews counted part of a day as a full day, that agrees with two days before the last supper in the Upper Room on Thursday evening, Nisan 14. Thursday Morning (Nisan 13, March 31). The teaching that Luke 21:37-38 describes probably occurred on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday morning. Thursday Evening (Nisan 14, March 31). The last supper occurred on Thursday in the Upper Room. Jesus was also betrayed that evening, Nisan 14. Then on Friday afternoon, Nisan 14, Jesus, the Messiah, the Prince, was crucified and died. The Gregorian date is April 1, A.D. 33. The Julian date is April 3, A.D. 33. The date of Nisan 6, 3793 or March 24, A.D. 33 corresponds to the Thursday before Jesus’ Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem. Friday (Nisan 14, April 1). In conclusion, the start date of the prophecy is Nisan 1, 444 B.C. The end date of the prophecy is the afternoon of Nisan 14, A.D. 33 or April 1. Daniel prophesied that the Messiah would die about 500 years before it happened. Other prophecies predicted that the Messiah would suffer (Isaiah 53), be pierced with a sword, be scourged, die alongside thieves, and be buried in a rich man’s grave. 6

J. E. Walvoord (2012): More than half of a millennium before Christ was born, Daniel predicted the exact year in which He would present Himself as Israel’s Messiah (cf. Dan. 9:25; Zech. 9:9; Luke 19:29-40) and then “be cut off, but not for himself” (Dan. 9:26; cf. Luke 23:33). To add further credibility to Daniel’s prophecy, if the exact month of Artaxerxes’ decree is considered then the calculation is accurate with an even further degree of precision. Since Nisan consists of 30 days, Artaxerxes’ decree was issued sometime between approximately March 4 and April 1 of 444 BC. When Daniel’s 69 weeks of years are added to this range of dates, the conclusion is March 23 to April 22 of AD 33, which encompasses the commonly accepted date for Jesus’ Passion Week! The caliber of this prediction is so miraculous that it can appropriately be labeled as the "non plus ultra" of prophecy. In fact, the words Jesus spoke directly after the Pharisees rejected His proclamation as Messiah on Palm Sunday imply that He expected the Israelites to recognize the timing of His arrival. Luke 19:42-44 notes that Jesus said the following:

“If you, even you, had only known on this day what would bring you peace—but now it is hidden from your eyes. 43 The days will come upon you when your enemies will build an embankment against you and encircle you and hem you in on every side. 44 They will dash you to the ground, you and the children within your walls. They will not leave one stone on another, because you did not recognize the time of God’s coming to you.”

According to Jesus, Israel’s failure to recognize Him as Messiah is what generated their subsequent destruction. If the Israelites would have understood Daniel’s 70-week prophecy – along with the messianic typology present in the Passover festival (cf. Ex. 12:1-6; 1 Cor. 5:7; Col. 2:17) – then they would have known exactly when the Messiah was to pay them their “visitation” (Luke 19:44) which God had promised centuries earlier. Biblical support that Jesus was crucified in AD 33 comes from Luke’s statement that His ministry began “in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius Pilate being governor of Judaea” (Luke 3:1). As noted earlier, since Tiberius began his rule in September of AD 14, his fifteenth year of reign would have spanned from September of 28 to September of 29. Likewise, Pontius Pilate’s governorship ended in early AD 37, so Jesus had to have been crucified sometime between AD 29 and 36. Because the Gospel of John records three explicit Passover feasts that occurred during Jesus’ ministry (cf. John 2:13, 6:4, 12:1), the range of possible crucifixion dates is narrowed even further to AD 31 to 36 – note that there may have been one or more Passover feasts which John did not record. Out of this possible range of dates, AD 33 is commonly accepted due to what day of the week Nisan 14 would have fallen on according to lunar data. Physicists Humphreys and Waddington, who incorporated astronomical calculations to determine the date of Christ’s crucifixion, concluded that “the evidence points to… April AD 33 as the date when Jesus Christ died.” Just as Daniel predicted, the Messiah presented Himself to Israel exactly 69 weeks of years after the decree to rebuild Jerusalem was issued and He was executed almost immediately after.

Application

Properly understanding Daniel’s 70-week prophecy helps Christians fulfill Scripture’s command to "be ready always to give an answer to every man that asketh you a reason of the hope that is in you with meekness and fear" (1 Pet. 3:15). Since only God exists outside of the temporal restraints of the universe, He alone has the ability to predict the future. There is no better example of Yahweh's predictive power than Daniel 9:24-27. Even God Himself declares that His ability to predict events before they occur is His signature in Isaiah 46:9-11:

Remember the former things of old: for I am God, and there is none else; I am God, and there is none like me, declaring the end from the beginning, and from ancient times the things that are not yet done, saying, My counsel shall stand, and I will do all my pleasure: Calling a ravenous bird from the east, the man that executeth my counsel from a far country: yea, I have spoken it, I will also bring it to pass; I have purposed it, I will also do it.

Though the multitude of prophecies which predicted characteristics such as Jesus' place of birth (cf. Mic. 5:2), childhood travels (cf. Hos. 11:1), betrayal (cf. Zech. 11:12), details of death (cf. Ps. 22:16-18), and many more serve as undeniable evidence for Yahweh's existence and His divine inspiration of the Bible, Daniel's 70-week prophecy is perhaps more impressive than all of the other messianic prophecies combined. Though typical criticisms of Jesus’ prophetic fulfillment include the unfounded claims that Jesus manipulated events in His life to fit OT prophecies or that the NT authors invented details of the life of Christ to fulfill OT predictions, such arguments are completely unwarranted against Daniel's prophecy. Even if one promoted the fringe view that Jesus never existed, the position that the NT authors would have described the Messiah's death exactly when Daniel predicted it by chance alone is absurd. Furthermore, the fact that there have been multiple self-proclaimed Messiahs throughout history but Jesus was the only one who died in AD 33, split human history in half, and gained billions of followers over thousands of years is remarkable. Another practical reason to understand Daniel 9:24-27 is that it inevitably leads to an appropriate respect for the OT. Too many churchgoers are ignorant of the details and purpose of the OT, which is more than twice as long as the NT! The earliest followers of Christ recognized that a basic understanding of the OT is necessary for one to have a rational faith in Jesus. Paul, when citing an ancient Christian creed, explained that "Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures" (1 Cor. 15:3). Seeing as Paul wrote 1 Corinthians “during his two- or three-year ministry in Ephesus (Acts 19:10; 1 Cor. 16:8, 19), in about AD 55,” the scriptures he was referring to were the books of the OT! A concrete example where knowledge of the OT played an essential role in a Christian's life and actually led to the salvation of one's soul can be found in Acts 8:27-35:

A man of Ethiopia, a eunuch of great authority… Was returning [from Jerusalem], and sitting in his chariot read Esaias the prophet. Then the Spirit said unto Philip, Go near, and join thyself to this chariot… And he desired Philip that he would come up and sit with him. The place of the scripture which he read was this, He was led as a sheep to the slaughter; and like a lamb dumb before his shearer, so opened he not his mouth: In his humiliation his judgment was taken away: and who shall declare his generation? for his life is taken from the earth. And the eunuch answered Philip, and said, I pray thee, of whom speaketh the prophet this? of himself, or of some other man? Then Philip opened his mouth, and began at the same scripture, and preached unto him Jesus.

The Ethiopian eunuch was reading from Isaiah 53, a passage written centuries before the birth of Jesus which describes a suffering servant of Yahweh in which “it pleased the LORD to bruise him; he hath put him to grief: when thou shalt make his soul an offering for sin… he bare the sin of many, and made intercession for the transgressors” (Isa. 53:10-12). Phillip’s knowledge of OT prophecy enabled him to evangelize to a curious unbeliever and resulted in the eunuch professing that “I believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God” (Acts 8:37). Therefore, in order for Christians to best fulfill the great commission and build God’s kingdom (cf. Matt. 6:33, 28:19-20), understanding OT themes and prophecies is invaluable.

Properly understanding Daniel’s 70-week prophecy serves to better equip the Christian’s apologetic arsenal while simultaneously demanding appreciation for biblical inspiration, authority, and inerrancy. As the author of Hebrews penned some 2,000 years ago, “the word of God is quick, and powerful, and sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing even to the dividing asunder of soul and spirit, and of the joints and marrow, and is a discerner of the thoughts and intents of the heart” (Heb. 4:12).1

Kris Udd: If we grant a 360-day year, 483 “years” (69×7) is 173,880 days. If we divide this by solar years of 365.242 days each we have 476.06 solar years. As it happens, this aligns quite well with the time from the issuing of the decree to Nehemiah in 444 BC to the triumphal entry of Jesus in March, AD 33. Put another way:

444 BC to AD 33 is 476 years [no year zero between 1 BC and AD 1].
476 x 365.242 is 173,855.28 days.

Adding 25 days for the difference between March 5 (444 BC) and March 30 (AD 33) produces 173,880 days.

We don’t know what day the decree was issued for Nehemiah to rebuild Jerusalem [Hoehner argues that it was New Years day, or March 5, 444 BC; but this is supposition]. Regardless, a date like this works if we calculate the “sixty-nine” sevens as 483 years of 360 days each.  God fulfills his decrees and brings about what He wishes, when He wishes. 23

Coincidence?! Or an amazing demonstration that God is able to see the beginning from the end and that the inspirer of this prophecy indeed can see outside the time domain? Surely this has to be one of the most remarkable prophecies of the Bible..25

The exact date of Christ’s crucifixion and death

Neverthirsty: Our first clue as to the time of Jesus’ death comes from John 2:20 where we are told that construction of the temple had already been in process for 46 years. Since the construction of the temple started in 20/19 B.C. which means Jesus’ ministry began after A.D. 27/28. We also know from Matthew 26:3 that Jesus ministered while Caiaphas was the high priest (A.D. 18 to A.D. 37) and Pontius Pilate was governor (Luke 3:1) from A.D. 26 to A.D. 36. Consequently, we conclude that Jesus’ ministry and death occurred between A.D. 30 and A.D. 36. However, it is highly doubtful that Christ lived past A.D. 34 given the year of His birth and the length of His ministry. Now we have the range of years in which Jesus died, but not the exact day.6







Evidence-for-the-bible: Christians commemorate Good Friday and Easter, the yearly events of Jesus’ death (the Day of Crucifixion), and resurrection. All of us understand that this occurred in Jerusalem in the 1st century. That separates Jesus from mythological pagan gods, who were expected to reside in areas or times that none can define. Exactly how certain can we be about the death of Jesus? Can we figure out the precise day? With some mathematical and scientific evidence for the day of crucifixion, we can.

Here’s how …

1: The High Priesthood of Caiaphas
The gospels suggest that Jesus was crucified at the instigation of the 1st-century high priest called Caiaphas (Matthew 26:3 -4, John 11:49 -53).
We understand from other sources that he functioned as high priest from A.D. 18 to 36, so that puts Jesus’ death during that timespan.
However, we can get more certain with scientific evidence for the day of crucifixion. A lot more.

2: The Governorship of Pontius Pilate
All 4 gospels concur that Jesus was crucified on the orders of Pontius Pilate (Matthew 27:24 -26, Mark 15:15, Luke 23:24, John 19:15 -16).
We understand from other sources when he functioned as governor of Judea – A.D. 26 to A.D. 36 – so we can narrow the time span by a number of years.
However, how are we going to get it down to a precise day and year?

3: After “the Fifteenth Year of Tiberius Caesar”
The Gospel of Luke informs us when the ministry of John the Baptist started:
In the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar … the word of God came to John the son of Zechariah in the wilderness [Luke 3 -2]
This identifies a particular year: A.D. 29.
Considering that all 4 gospels portray the ministry of Christ starting after that of John the Baptist had actually kicked off (Matthew 3, Mark 1, Luke 3, John 1), this indicates that we can shave a couple of more years off our time span. The death of Christ needed to remain in a range of 7 years: in between A.D. 29 and 36.

4: Crucified on a Friday
All 4 gospels concur that Jesus was crucified on a Friday (Matt. 27:62, Mark 15:42; Luke23:54; John 19:42), right before a Sabbath, which was right before the 1st day of the week (Matthew 28:1, Mark 16:2, Luke 24:1, John 20:1). We understand that it was a Friday due to the fact that it is described as “the day of preparation”– that is, the day on which Jews made the preparations they required for the Sabbath, given that they might refrain from doing any work on that day. Therefore they prepared food ahead of time and made other needed preparations. That gets rid of 6 of the days of the week, however there were still many Fridays in between A.D. 29 and 36.
Can we find out which one? Again, with more scientific evidence for the day of crucifixion, we definitely can!

5: A Friday at Passover
The gospels likewise concur that Jesus was crucified in conjunction with the yearly feast of Passover (Matthew 26:2, Mark 14:1, Luke 22:1, John 18:39).
Here we come across a small problem, due to the fact that Matthew, Mark, and Luke talk about the Last Supper on Holy Thursday as a Passover meal (Matthew 26:19, Mark 14:14, Luke 22:15). That would indicate that Good Friday was the day after Passover. Nevertheless, when explaining the early morning of Good Friday, John reveals that the Jewish authorities had actually not yet consumed the Passover meal:
Then they led Jesus from the house of Caiaphas to the Praetorium [i.e., Pilate’s palace] It was early. They themselves did not enter the Praetorium, so that they might not be defiled, but might eat the passover. So Pilate went out to them [John 18:28 -29 That proposes that the Passover would have started on sundown Friday. Referring to John’s declaration about Jesus’ captors as an indicator of what the Jewish authorities or the mainstream Jewish practice was: They were commemorating a Passover that started on what we would call Friday night. That lets us shorten the range of possible dates to simply a handful. Here is a total list of the days around A.D. 29 and 36 on whose evenings Passover started:.

Monday, April 18, A.D. 29.
Friday, April 7, A.D. 30.
Tuesday, March 27, A.D. 31.
Monday, April 14, A.D. 32.
Friday, April 3, A.D. 33.
Wednesday, March 24, A.D. 34.
Tuesday, April 12, A.D. 35.
Saturday, March 31, A.D. 36.

As you can see, we have simply 2 prospects left: Jesus was either crucified on April 7 of A.D. 30 or April 3 of A.D. 33 Which was it? The conventional date is that of A.D. 33. You will discover quite a variety of individuals today promoting the A.D. 30 date. Do the gospels let us choose among the two?

6: John’s Three Passovers.
The Gospel of John records 3 various Passovers throughout the ministry of Jesus:

Passover # 1: This is captured in John 2:13, near the start of Jesus’ ministry.
Passover # 2: This is captured in John 6:4, in the middle of Jesus’ ministry.
Passover # 3: This is captured in John 11:55 (and often talked about later on), at the end of Jesus’ ministry.

That suggests that the ministry of Jesus needed to cover something over 2 years. A fuller treatment would uncover that it stretched over about 3 and a half years. However, even if we presume it started right away prior to Passover # 1, the addition of 2 more Passovers reveals that it lasted more than 2 years at a bare minimum. That suggests the A.D. 30 date is out. There are insufficient time anywhere between the fifteenth year of Tiberius Caesar– A.D. 29– and the next year’s Passover to accommodate a ministry of at minimum 2 years. The numbers do not add up. As a result, the conventional date of Jesus’ death– Friday, April 3, A.D. 33– need to be considered as the proper one. Can we be a lot more accurate with scientific evidence for the day of crucifixion?

7: “The Ninth Hour”.
Matthew, Mark, and Luke each record that Jesus passed away about “the ninth hour” (Matthew 27:45 -50, Mark 15:34 -37, Luke 23:44 -46). “The ninth hour” is what we, today, would come to know as 3:00 p.m This enables us to shorten the time of Jesus’ death to a remarkably precise point in history: around 3:00 p.m on Friday, April 3, A.D. 33. On a final note, even the stars in heaven point exactly to the date that we have concluded here. It is highly suggested that you also view our Prophetic Evidence For The Star Of Bethlehem and have zero doubt as to the 3:00 p.m on Friday, April 3, A.D. 33 date!!




Jeffrey L. Edwards (2017): One significant date used to establish Peter’s travels includes the timing attributed to Christ’s crucifixion. The best method to determine when the Romans crucified Christ requires the process of elimination. Humphreys and Waddington summarize the three main components to use to establish the correct date regarding Christ’s crucifixion:
There are three main pieces of biblical evidence for dating the Crucifixion: 

1. Jesus was crucified when Pontius Pilate was procurator of Judea during AD 26–36 (all four Gospels; also Tacitus, Ann. 15:44). 
2. All four Gospels agree that Jesus died a few hours before the commencement of the Jewish Sabbath, that is, he died before nightfall on a Friday. In addition, the earliest writings that explicitly state the date of the Crucifixion all have it as a Friday. 
3. All four Gospels agree to within about a day . . . that the Crucifixion was at the time of Passover.

Christ’s crucifixion took place on a Friday afternoon, between A.D. 26 and A.D. 36, and on or near Passover.  The following details utilize this and other previous research to verify the exact date for Christ’s crucifixion.
Exodus 12:6 fixed Nisan 14 as the Passover date. They killed a lamb each Nisan 14 “in the evening” (Ex 12:1–8 ). They measured a day from evening to morning, but that practiced changed to a morning reckoning.  This evening reckoning or morning reckoning calculation permits Passover to fall either on Nisan 14 or Nisan 15. Between A.D. 26 and A.D. 36 only A.D. 27, 30, 33, and 34 place Nisan 14 or 15 on a Friday. The first step to determining which date the Scriptures state as the crucifixion Passover requires a simple reason that eliminates A.D. 27. John the Baptist’s ministry began in Tiberius Caesar’s fifteenth year, or A.D. 29. Christ’s crucifixion occurred after his ministry began in A.D. 29, thereby eliminating A.D. 27. The second step means eliminating A.D. 34 as a possibility. This requires eliminating Nisan 15 as an option. The reason scholars entertain Nisan 15 relates to which weekday Christ celebrated the last supper. The Synoptic Gospels state that Christ celebrated the last supper as a Passover meal, so it took place on Thursday, Nisan 14, which places Christ’s crucifixion on Friday, Nisan 15. John, however, never calls the last supper a Passover meal, so it took place on Thursday, Nisan 13, which places Christ’s crucifixion on Friday, Nisan  14.  The solution to this dilemma requires examining how the Jews measured their days.



Passover could be reckoned from sunset to sunset or sunrise to sunrise. . . . Josephus   . . . seems to indicate a sunrise to sunrise reckoning. The Mishnah states that the Passover lamb must be eaten by midnight which would seem to indicate that the new day began . . . at sunrise. . . . Since there were two systems of reckoning the day . . . this would be a solution to the disagreement between the synoptics and John. . . . The Galileans and Pharisees used the sunrise to sunrise reckoning whereas the Judeans and Sadducees used the sunset to sunset reckoning. Thus, according to the synoptics, the Last Supper was a Passover meal. Since the day is to be reckoned from sunrise, the Galileans, and with them Jesus and His disciples, had the Paschal lamb slaughtered in the late afternoon of Thursday, Nisan 14, and later that evening they ate the Passover with the unleavened bread. On the other hand, the Judean Jews who reckoned from sunset to sunset would slay the lamb on Friday afternoon which marked the end of Nisan 14 and ate the Passover lamb with the unleavened bread that night which had become Nisan 15. Thus, Jesus had consumed the Passover meal when His enemies, who had not as yet had the Passover, arrested Him. This gives good sense to John 18:28 that the Jews did not want to enter the Praetorium so as not to be defiled since later that day they would slay the victims for those who reckoned from sunset to sunset. After Jesus’ trial, He was crucified when the Paschal lambs were slain in the temple precincts. This fits well with the Gospel of John. . . . This solution would mean that there were two days of slaughter. This would solve the problem of having to slaughter all of the lambs for all of those participants at the Passover season. . . . Although one cannot be overly dogmatic, it does fit well with the data at hand. It is simple and makes good sense.

This eliminates Nisan 15 and thereby A.D. 34 as a possible crucifixion date, reducing the options to A.D. 30 and A.D. 33.

The third step requires eliminating A.D. 30. Christ’s ministry began, as stated previously, between his baptism in the summer or fall A.D. 29 and his first ministry Passover in A.D. 30. Jesus celebrated Passover at least three times during his ministry (John 2:13, 23, 6:4, 11:55). Christ’s crucifixion, therefore, took place in at least A.D. 32. That leaves A.D. 33 as the only viable option to list as the crucifixion year, or as Finegan states: “According to
the foregoing analysis . . . the crucifixion of Jesus was most probably on Friday, Apr 3, A.D. 33, corresponding to Nisan 14.” 15

The history data surrounding Lucius Sejanus favors the AD 33 date

James M. Rochford (2022): If the AD 27 is too soon and the AD 36 date was too late, this leaves us with only AD 30 and AD 33. Scholars have pointed to a historical figure to solve our dilemma: Lucius Sejanus.

Pontius Pilate (the Roman governor of Judea) was appointed by Lucius Sejanus. Sejanus was arguably the most powerful man in the Roman Empire—second only to emperor Tiberius. Sejanus commanded the imperial guard, and he had almost complete control of the Roman military. Emperor Tiberius had retired to the island of Capri, and for all intents and purposes, he was politically out-of-commission. He had given stewardship of the military over to Sejanus—his first in command.

Sejanus was a horrid anti-Semite, and Pilate implemented his anti-Jewish policies in Judea. Pilate raised up embossed statues of the Emperor in Jerusalem; he seized money from the Temple treasury (the Corbanus); he put down Jewish protests with covert Roman soldiers, who wore plain clothes and wielded clubs. Pilate killed or oppressed many Jews under his reign. Together, Sejanus and Pilate ran an anti-Semitic regime.

By Roman law, the Jews had a right to appeal to the emperor for this injustice, but Emperor Tiberius was isolated, gallivanting on the island of Capri. He never heard any of these complaints, because Sejanus interrupted any attempt to appeal to him. Hoehner writes:

How could all these insults continue without the protest of the Jews to the Roman government? This was not a problem as Sejanus was in full control. Any complaint sent to Tiberius would be destroyed by Sejanus before reaching the island of Capri.[6]

All was going well for Pilate until Sejanus finally overstepped himself with the Emperor. Sejanus sought to displace Emperor Tiberius, slowly killing off all of the heirs to the royal throne before he tried a coup d’état on the Emperor himself. Eventually, Tiberius pieced together the fact that Sejanus was responsible for the insurrection, and he realized that he was positioning for an assassination. On October 18th, AD 31, Emperor Tiberius executed Sejanus for the capital crime of treason, beheading him on the spot. After this insurrection was put down, Tiberius became incredibly suspicious of all of Sejanus’ friends, cynical that anyone could be a part of Sejanus’ treason.

Remember, one of Sejanus’ close friends was Pontius Pilate.

Because Sejanus (a traitor to the Emperor) had appointed Pilate, Emperor Tiberius became incredibly suspicious of Pilate. Anyone connected with Sejanus was viewed as another potential assassin or insurrectionist.

Paranoid that the Emperor would execute him next, Pilate pledged his allegiance to the throne by placing shields with Tiberius’ name on them in the former palace of Herod the Great. The Jews complained about this, probably because these shields referenced the Emperor’s divinity, and they complained to Tiberius. When Tiberius heard about this act, he suspected that Pilate still held anti-Semitic (and thus, pro-Sejanus!) directives, and it made him even more suspicious of Pilate’s loyalty.

Herod Antipas reported Pilate’s anti-Semitic attitude to Tiberius, ratting him out and making him look like a pro-Sejanus traitor. These two men were enemies, because of Pilate’s history of persecuting the Jews, and Herod Antipas held severe leverage over him with the emperor. 22

How does this historical information about Sejanus explain the biblical account?

Knowing all of this history, consider how this resolves the difficulties in several biblical texts.

(Lk. 23:6-12) “When Pilate heard it, he asked whether the man was a Galilean. And when he learned that He belonged to Herod’s jurisdiction, he sent Him to Herod, who himself also was in Jerusalem at that time.  Now Herod was very glad when he saw Jesus; for he had wanted to see Him for a long time, because he had been hearing about Him and was hoping to see some sign performed by Him.  And he questioned Him at some length; but He answered him nothing. And the chief priests and the scribes were standing there, accusing Him vehemently. And Herod with his soldiers, after treating Him with contempt and mocking Him, dressed Him in a gorgeous robe and sent Him back to Pilate. Now Herod and Pilate became friends with one another that very day; for before they had been enemies with each other.”

For years, commentators wondered why Pilate—a man of such horrific anti-Semitism—would bend to the Jews in such a way.

This whole event makes sense in light of an AD 33 date for the crucifixion. If Christ was executed in AD 30, Sejanus would’ve still been in power. Pilate would’ve still been an aggressive tyrant against the Jews, and he would’ve spit in their face, when they tried to push him around politically.

But, if Christ was killed in AD 33, then Pilate would’ve been terrified of offending the Jews! Remember, Pilate was already in hot water with Tiberius, because his anti-Semitism appeared to be pro-Sejanus loyalty, and Pilate was trying to distance himself from Sejanus’ failed insurrection. This would make sense why Pilate was trying to be friendly with Herod: he was trying to get on his good side. Pilate didn’t want to make another wrong move that would give Herod the opportunity to rat him out again.

(Jn. 19:12) As a result of this Pilate made efforts to release Him, but the Jews cried out saying, “If you release this Man, you are no friend of Caesar; everyone who makes himself out to be a king opposes Caesar.”

Before the death of Sejanus, Pilate probably would’ve scoffed at the Jewish religious leaders’ political posturing. But, if Sejanus had been killed already, then Pilate would not have wanted any more accusations getting back to Caesar; therefore, he succumbs to their demands. Hoehner writes:

The phrase “friend of Caesar” is a technical phrase which meant that such a one was among the elite in the Roman government who were loyal to the emperor. To lose the status of “amici Caesaris” meant political doom. Pilate realized that he had overstepped himself in the shields episode and could not afford to get into more trouble with Tiberius.

This threat would have been completely null and void, if it was given in AD 30. Sejanus would’ve intercepted any potential petition to Tiberius, and Pilate could’ve quelled any disobedience, as he had in the past (Luke 13:1). But, if this threat came in 33 AD, quickly on the heels of Sejanus’ squashed treason, it would’ve held tremendous weight to Pilate’s already paranoid demeanor. Again, Hoehner writes:

If the crucifixion occurred in AD 30 the Jews’ threat would be empty indeed since Tiberius could not be reached except through Sejanus. However, in AD 33 this is a loaded threat… After the death of Sejanus, Tiberius’ new policy was not to disturb the Jewish customs and institutions. Without the historical data about Sejanus, we are left with a question as to why Pilate would be so passive toward the Jewish religious leaders. On the other hand, given the data, the picture of Pilate in the NT makes perfect sense if these events occurred in AD 33. 16

Oxford Scholars Consult the Stars to Date Crucifixion to 33 A.D.

Four dates have been proposed by scholars as the historical date of the Crucifixion of Christ, but only one--Friday, April 3, in the year 33 A.D.--is backed up by astronomical history, two Oxford University scientists say.

Colin J. Humphreys and W.G. Waddington, writing in the prestigious British journal Nature, present fresh evidence that the Crucifixion took place on the first Friday of April, 33, based on a calculation that a partial eclipse of the moon could be seen in Jerusalem on that date. Humphreys and Waddington say that this eclipse appeared to be "blood red" and followed a dust storm that "darkened the sun," just as the apostles said in the Gospels.

"Presumably, this eclipse was considered irrelevant to the date of the Crucifixion since it was believed to be invisible from Jerusalem," the two Oxford scientists declare. "However, the more accurate calculations presented here prove that this eclipse was visible." For centuries, scholars have argued whether Christ was crucified on one of four April Fridays in the first century: April 11, in the year 27; April 7, in the year 30; April 3, in the year 33, and April 23, in the year 34. The Oxford scientists use Biblical history to dismiss 27 as being too soon and 34 as being too late.

They add: "The only eminent advocate of 23 April, 34, is Sir Isaac Newton, whose chief reason seems to have been that 23 April is St. George's Day," a high Anglican holiday. Between the remaining two dates--April 7, 30, and April 3, 33--Humphreys and Waddington come out for the latter because it is the only Friday in April (at Passover time) when the moon was eclipsed by the Earth in any year from 26 to 36, the years Pontius Pilate served as Roman governor of Jerusalem and could have ordered the execution of Jesus.

Time after time in Biblical history, scholars wrote that the "sun turned to darkness" while Jesus died on the cross and the "moon to blood" just after He died. The Oxford scientists say the sun turned to darkness April 3, 33, because, according to accounts in Roman literature, a massive dust storm occurred that day. So much dust was spewed into the air from the storm that it caused the moon to look blood-red when it became visible to Jerusalem residents late in the day.

"Our calculations show that this eclipse was visible from Jerusalem at moonrise," Humphreys and Waddington write, contradicting scholars who thought the eclipse occurred out of sight of Jerusalem. "The moon rose above the Jerusalem horizon at about 6:20 p.m. (the start of the Jewish Sabbath and of Passover in 33) with about 20 percent of its disc eclipsed, and the eclipse finished some 30 minutes later at 6:50 p.m." Importantly, the scientists say, the Earth's shadow was near the top of the rising moon, making 65 percent of it to appear to be in eclipse. The color of the rising lunar eclipse would have been enhanced by the dust particles suspended in the atmosphere over Jerusalem by the storm.

"It might be thought curious that a crucifixion lunar eclipse is not mentioned in the Gospels," Humphreys and Waddington conclude. "In retrospect, this lunar eclipse would have seemed insignificant to the Gospel writers compared with the Crucifixion and Resurrection. The Gospel writers were not primarily interested in providing clues for chronologists." 17


21

Andreas Köstenberger (2014): We conclude that Jesus was most likely crucified on April 3, a.d. 33. 18
Colin Humphreys (2011): What I believe is conclusive is that we can rule out AD 30 as the year of the crucifixion, leaving April 3, AD 33 as the only possible date 19
Wikipedia: Recent astronomical research uses the contrast between the synoptic date of Jesus' last Passover on the one hand, with John's date of the subsequent "Jewish Passover" on the other hand, to propose Jesus' Last Supper to have been on Wednesday, 1 April AD 33 and the crucifixion on Friday 3 April AD 33 and the Resurrection on the third day. 20

The end date corresponds to the date the Messiah the Prince is cut-off.  End Date of The Prophecy — April 3, A.D. 33

Neverthirsty:  Jesus died on April 1, A.D. 33 in the Gregorian calendar. In the Julian calendar the date is April 3, A.D. 33 and in the Jewish calendar it is Nisan 14, 3793. 6

Jesus died, therefore, on Friday, April 3, AD 33 at about 3 p.m., a few hours before the beginning of Passover day and the Sabbath. This is the date in the Julian calendar, which had been introduced in 46 BC, and follows the convention that historical dates adhere to the calendar in use at the time.24

1. John F Walvoord: Daniel: The Key to Prophetic Revelation 2012
2. Dr. Thomas L. Constable: Notes on Nehemiah 2022
3. Frank M. Cross, “A Reconstruction of the Judean Restoration,” Journal of Biblical Literature (1975)
4. Nathan Jarrett: The Prophecy of Prophecies: Correcting Harold Hoehner’s Interpretation of Daniel’s 70 Weeks December 2021
5. Is it significant the 7 weeks and 62 weeks are separated in Daniel 9:25?
6. Neverthirsty: Prophecy of Daniel’s Seventy Weeks – Daniel 9:24-25
7. David J. Hamstra: THE SEVENTY-WEEKS PROPHECY OF DANIEL 9:24–27 AND FIRST-CENTURY AD JEWISH MESSI Y AD JEWISH MESSIANIC EXPEC ANIC EXPECTATION 5-11-2020
8. Arnold Fruchtenbaum: The Messianic Time Table According to Daniel the Prophet April 20 2018
9. Dr. Ralph F. Wilson: Appendix 3. The Case for a Sixth Century Dating of Daniel 2010
10. JUSTIN ROGERS, Ph.D.: The Date of Daniel: Does it Matter? December 2016
11. George Gunn: DANIEL 9:24-27 – THE SEVENTY HEPTADS August 10, 2010
12. Dr. Musekiwa: The Book of Daniel: The Problem of Dating September 9, 2018
13. J. Paul Tanner: IS DANIEL’S SEVENTY-WEEKS PROPHECY MESSIANIC? PART 1 April–June 2009
14. Peter W. Flint: Contents of Daniel 1996
15. Evidenceforthebible: Scientific Evidence For The Day Of Crucifixion
16. James M. Rochford: Dating Jesus’ death: April 3, AD 33 2022
17. Thomas O'Toole: Oxford Scholars Consult the Stars to Date Crucifixion to 33 A.D. April 20, 1984
18. Andreas J. Kostenberger: APRIL 3, AD 33 WHY WE BELIEVE WE CAN KNOW THE EXACT DATE JESUS DIED 4.3.2014
19. Colin Humphreys: The Mystery of the Last Supper  pp. 72 2011
20. Wikipedia: Chronology of Jesus
21. Colin J. Humphreys and W.G. Waddington: THE JEWISH CALENDAR, A LUNAR ECLIPSE AND THE DATE OF CHRIST'S CRUCIFIXION 1992
22. Jeffrey L. Edwards: THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES AND LITERARY RECORDS RELATED TO THE APOSTLE PETER 2017
23. Kris Udd: Seventy Sevens are Determined
24. The Death of Jesus
25. God of the exact: Daniel’s Seventy Week Prophecy
26. JOHN F. WALVOORD: EVERY PROPHECY OF THE BIBLE (1990)
27. Dr. Jacques B. Doukhan: ON THE WAY TO EMMAUS Five Major Messianic Prophecies Explained 2012
28. Klaus Koch: Das Buch Daniel 1980
29. WatchJerusalem: Can We Trust the Book of Daniel? 2019
30. JOHN F. WALVOORD: Every Prophecy of the Bible: Clear Explanations for Uncertain Times September 1, 2011
31. Billy Graham association: Why did King Herod try to kill Jesus shortly after His birth? After all, what difference could a tiny baby have made to someone as powerful as he was?
32. Biblearchaeology.org: The slaughter of the innocents: historical fact or legendary fiction?

یہ سب سے جامع ویڈیو ہے (اردو میں ترجمہ) تورین کے کفن کے بارے میں، عیسیٰ کے دفن ہونے والے کپڑے۔ براہ کرم دیکھیں، اور اگر آپ کو ویڈیو پسند ہے، تو براہ کرم اسے اپنے دوستوں، چرچ کے اراکین، ساتھیوں، اور خاندان کے ساتھ، اور خاص طور پر کافروں کی بشارت دینے کے لیے شیئر کریں۔

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z1JQPSCgK8k&t=26s

Following is a link, where you can download for free, my two-volume book: Confirming Yeshua:

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Word: 
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https://mega.nz/file/F7J2QKjD#TdmFpoyn8nVK641NwlT0NGbYO1DGYKZ2a-Qg4nex0Bk

Volume 2
https://mega.nz/file/R3RA0CTa#-MgEwQgtihcKoQMTzQ5CkmTuTuGFF0fbc-AmSeozFVE




If you like the books,  I ask your kindness to share the below information on your Facebook timeline, and maybe you can recommend the books also among your church members, pastors etc. for purchase on Amazon. So you are retributing and helping my ministry too.

Confirming Yeshua Volume 1 & 2, authored by Otangelo Grasso,  have been published and are up for sale on Amazon, both, in Kindle version, and as a paperback.

Confirming Yeshua Volume 1, Kindle version :
https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0BXJZ3QGG

As paperback (493 pages): https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0BW28MPN7

Confirming Yeshua Volume 2, Kindle version:
https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0BXK45WD9

As paperback (414 pages): https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0BW31GXH3

Joe Marino, Shroud of Turin expert, author of:
The 1988 C-14 Dating Of The Shroud of Turin: A Stunning Exposé:

Grasso's 2-volume work on Jesus of Nazareth is the most impressive work.  It goes into painstaking details regarding every aspect of his impactful life and confirms his historicity.  Dealing with every aspect of his existence, the work has numerous color pictures, tables, charts, and maps. Both epic volumes belong in everyone's collection, Christian and skeptic alike. Volume 1 examines Old Testament prophecies that found their fulfillment in Jesus, the reliability of the Gospels, the date of the crucifixion, and the reality of the Resurrection. Volume 2 examines the genealogy of Jesus, various skeptical claims against his existence, and the overwhelming amount of evidence that points to the Shroud of Turin being the actual burial cloth that wrapped Jesus in the tomb.