How Jesus Suffered for Humanity - Facts on Jesus' Death

How Jesus Suffered for Humanity - Facts on Jesus' Death

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Crucifixion, as a method of execution, indeed has a long and brutal history. Its origins can be traced back to the ancient Persians around 300 BC, and it was later adopted and refined by other civilizations, including the Greeks, Carthaginians, and notably, the Romans around 100 BC. The Romans were known for their particularly methodical and excruciating form of crucifixion, used both as a means of execution and a deterrent against crimes.

1. The term "excruciating" itself is deeply connected to crucifixion. It comes from the Latin "excruciatus," or "out of the cross," underscoring the extreme pain associated with this form of capital punishment. Crucifixion was designed to be a slow, agonizing death, with the victim enduring a multitude of physical traumas.

2. The use of crucifixion in Roman times, especially its reservation for the most heinous of criminals, reflects the societal and cultural context in which Jesus was crucified. Crucifixion was typically reserved for slaves, pirates, and those considered the worst of criminals. Its use for Jesus, seen as a threat to the Roman state and religious authorities, was symbolic of the severity with which his actions and teachings were viewed by those in power. The refusal of Jesus to accept the wine mixed with myrrh, often referred to as "anaesthetic wine," is a significant moment in the narrative of the crucifixion. This mixture was customarily offered to those being crucified as a mild analgesic, intended to numb some of the pain. In Mark 15:23, it's mentioned that Jesus was offered wine mixed with myrrh but he did not take it. This refusal aligns with the prophecy and Jesus' own declarations in the Bible. In Matthew 26:29, Jesus speaks of abstaining from the fruit of the vine until he can drink it anew in the Kingdom of His Father. This statement can be interpreted in several ways:

Fulfillment of Prophecy: By refusing the wine, Jesus was ensuring that he remained fully conscious and that his suffering was not alleviated, fulfilling the scriptures and prophecies about the Messiah's suffering and death.
Spiritual Readiness: Jesus’ refusal might also symbolize his readiness to face his suffering and death with full awareness, without the haze of an analgesic. It shows his acceptance of the path laid out for him.
Symbolic Representation: In the context of the Last Supper and his teachings, the wine was a symbol of his blood, to be shed for many for the forgiveness of sins. Refusing the wine at the crucifixion could symbolize that his sacrifice was not yet complete.
Eschatological Significance: The reference to drinking it new in the Father's kingdom suggests a future hope and promise, indicating that the current suffering is part of a larger divine plan that leads to a future of redemption and salvation.

3. The account of Jesus being stripped of His clothing and the Roman guards casting lots for them is a significant detail in the crucifixion narrative, tying back to the fulfillment of prophecy, particularly as referenced in Psalm 22:18. However, the aspect of whether Jesus was crucified naked and the interplay of Roman and Jewish customs regarding nudity at crucifixions is a complex topic with varying interpretations.

Fulfillment of Prophecy: The act of dividing Jesus' garments and casting lots for His clothing is specifically mentioned in the Gospels (e.g., John 19:23-24) and is seen as a direct fulfillment of the prophecy in Psalm 22:18. This connection is crucial for the early Christians and authors of the Gospels, who saw Jesus' life and death as a fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies.
Roman Crucifixion Practices: In Roman practice, crucifixion was not just a method of execution but also a form of extreme humiliation. The condemned were often crucified naked, both to add to their shame and as a deterrent to others. This practice was part of the overall cruelty and public humiliation inherent in crucifixion.
Jewish Customs and Sensitivities: Jewish culture and religious laws held a strong sense of modesty, and public nudity was considered deeply shameful. There is some historical debate about how far Roman authorities would go to respect these customs in the context of crucifixion, a punishment designed for humiliation. It's possible that in some cases, particularly in regions with significant Jewish populations like Judea, some modifications might have been made to accommodate these sensitivities, possibly leaving some minimal covering on the condemned.
Historical Interpretations: Some historical and theological interpretations suggest that Jesus was not fully naked on the cross, partly out of consideration for Jewish customs. However, others argue that given the Roman intent to humiliate, and considering that crucifixion was a punishment reserved for the most severe transgressions, full nudity might have been enforced to maximize the shame.
Artistic Representations: Over the centuries, artistic depictions of the crucifixion have typically portrayed Jesus with a loincloth, which could be more reflective of later Christian sensibilities and artistic conventions than historical accuracy.

4. The crucifixion of Jesus, as with any crucifixion, indeed guaranteed a horrific, slow, and painful death. The anatomical and physiological stresses placed on the body in crucifixion are profound and contribute to the extreme suffering experienced by the victim.

Position of the Body: The standard position in crucifixion involved the arms being stretched and affixed to the crossbar, often by nailing through the wrists or hands. This position alone put immense strain on the shoulders, arms, and chest, making it difficult to breathe and maintain any semblance of a comfortable position.
Respiratory Distress: In the crucifixion position, the muscles used for breathing are stretched and cannot function properly. To inhale, the victim must pull themselves up by their arms and push down on their feet (if a footrest or nail through the feet is present) to raise the body and allow the chest to expand. This action is excruciatingly painful, particularly after scourging (whipping) which often preceded crucifixion and left the back raw and bleeding.
Effects of Hanging by the Arms: Hanging by the arms for extended periods leads to fatigue in the muscles and severe pain due to the hyperextension of the joints and ligaments. This can also lead to dislocation of the shoulders. The downward pull of the body's weight would make maintaining any position extremely painful.
Blood Circulation and Nerve Damage: The nailing of the hands and feet would cause severe injury to nerves and blood vessels, leading to intense pain and potentially contributing to blood loss and tissue damage. Impaired blood circulation would exacerbate the pain and lead to further complications.
Compounding Factors: Dehydration, exposure to the elements, and the psychological trauma of public humiliation and anticipation of a slow death would compound the physical agony. The combination of physical pain, psychological stress, and the overall weakening of the body's systems would eventually lead to a cascade of fatal physiological failures.
Cause of Death: The actual cause of death in crucifixion can vary. It could be due to a combination of factors including hypovolemic shock, exhaustion asphyxia (inability to breathe leading to suffocation), dehydration, and heart failure.

5. The position of Jesus on the cross, particularly the flexion of his knees at about 45 degrees, highlights the extreme physical distress experienced during crucifixion. This position, where the knees are bent and the weight of the body is forced onto the thighs, exacerbates the agony of the crucifixion in several ways:

Muscle Fatigue and Cramps: Maintaining a semi-squat position with the knees flexed at 45 degrees places an extraordinary strain on the thigh muscles. In a normal setting, such a position would be difficult to hold for more than a few minutes without experiencing muscle fatigue and cramps. The muscles of the thigh (quadriceps) and calf would quickly become exhausted, leading to severe, painful cramping.
Compromised Blood Circulation: This position would also compromise blood circulation to the lower limbs. The continuous pressure and strain on the leg muscles, combined with potential injuries from nailing, could lead to reduced blood flow, contributing to the rapid onset of muscle fatigue and cramps.
Increased Pain with Movement: Every attempt to move or adjust to alleviate the pain in the legs would result in pulling and tearing at the wounds in the wrists (or hands) and feet, creating a cycle of unrelenting pain. The need to push up to breathe would exacerbate the pain in the legs, creating a situation where the relief of one form of agony (respiratory distress) would intensify another (muscle cramps and joint pain).
Joint Stress and Dislocation: The unnatural position would also place extreme stress on the knee and hip joints. Prolonged hanging in this position could lead to dislocation and further injury to these joints, increasing the severity of the pain.
Limitations of Movement: As time passed, the increasing fatigue and pain would make any movement more difficult. The victim’s ability to lift themselves to breathe would diminish, hastening the onset of respiratory distress and the likelihood of asphyxiation.
Contribution to Cause of Death: The combined effects of muscle cramps, joint stress, impaired blood circulation, and severe pain in the lower extremities would contribute to the overall physiological breakdown of the body, potentially hastening the process of death due to shock, respiratory failure, or other complications.

6. The crucifixion process, particularly the manner in which Jesus was required to bear His weight, underscores the excruciating nature of this method of execution. When crucified, the body's weight is initially borne by the feet, if they are nailed to the cross. However, as the ordeal continues, the dynamics of how the body bears this weight shift dramatically due to muscle fatigue and the body's instinctive responses to pain and stress.

Initial Weight Bearing on Feet: At the beginning of the crucifixion, when the feet are nailed to the cross, they bear much of the body's weight. The nails would likely have been driven through the near the ankle, causing excruciating pain and potentially damaging bones, nerves, and blood vessels. The position would force the legs to bear the body's weight in an extremely unnatural and painful stance.
Muscle Fatigue in Lower Limbs: As time passes, the muscles in Jesus' legs, already under immense strain due to the unnatural position and the trauma of the nails, would begin to fatigue and cramp severely. This fatigue would be exacerbated by the loss of blood and the physical exhaustion from the prior scourging.
Transfer of Weight to the Upper Body: As the strength of the muscles in the lower limbs waned, it would become increasingly difficult, if not impossible, to support the body's weight on the legs and feet alone. This would necessitate a shift of the body's weight to the wrists, arms, and shoulders, which involves pulling up on the nails in the wrists and pushing down on the feet, creating a cyclic movement of excruciating pain.
Stress on the Wrists and Arms: The transfer of weight to the upper body would place enormous stress on the wrists, which were pierced by nails, and on the arms and shoulders. This would likely cause intense pain, dislocation of joints, and further nerve damage. The arms would be stretched, causing the shoulders to bear much of the body's weight, leading to potential dislocation and intense strain on the muscles and ligaments.
Compromised Respiratory Function: The entire process would severely compromise respiratory function. To inhale, Jesus would have had to push down on His feet and pull up using His arms, exacerbating the pain in both the feet and wrists. Each breath would require a painful movement, leading to progressive respiratory distress.
Vicious Cycle of Pain and Exhaustion: This process would create a vicious cycle: the need to breathe compels movement, which exacerbates the pain, leading to more rapid physical exhaustion, and further diminishing the capacity to breathe, all contributing to the inevitable progression towards death.
Psychological and Emotional Suffering: In addition to the physical agony, the psychological and emotional suffering — the humiliation, the abandonment, and the anticipation of each new wave of pain with each breath — would be profound.

7. The description of Jesus' shoulders, elbows, and wrists becoming dislocated shortly after being placed on the cross is a perspective that emphasizes the intense physical trauma involved in crucifixion. While historical and medical analyses of crucifixion vary, the notion of dislocation under the strain of crucifixion is plausible given the extreme physical stresses involved. Let's explore how and why these dislocations could occur in the context of crucifixion:

Stress on the Shoulders: When a person is crucified, their arms are typically stretched and affixed to the crossbar. The weight of the body pulling down on these outstretched arms can place enormous strain on the shoulder joints. In the case of Jesus, the weight of his own body, combined with the weakened state from prior scourging, could lead to the dislocation of the shoulder joints. Dislocation would occur as the ligaments and muscles supporting the shoulder joints are overstretched and torn under the weight of the body.
Elbows and Wrists Strain: As the body sags down due to gravity and muscle fatigue, further stress is placed on the elbows and wrists. The unnatural position and the weight of the body can lead to a hyperextension and potential dislocation of these joints as well. The wrists, pierced by nails, would bear a significant part of the body's weight, exacerbating the strain on these joints.
Cyclic Movement Increasing Risk of Dislocation: As previously mentioned, in an effort to breathe, the crucified individual would have to push up with their feet and pull up with their arms. This repeated movement, necessary for respiration, would further strain all the upper body joints. Each time Jesus lifted himself to breathe, the stress on his already overburdened shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints would increase, making dislocations more likely.
Cumulative Effect of Trauma: The cumulative effect of the initial nailing, the weight of the body, the struggle to breathe, and the repeated movements would likely lead to a gradual dislocation of these joints over time, rather than an immediate dislocation upon being placed on the cross.
Physiological Implications: Dislocations of these joints would significantly impair Jesus' ability to lift himself to breathe, hastening the onset of respiratory distress and contributing to the overall agony and trauma of the crucifixion.
Historical and Medical Perspectives: It's important to note that the specific medical details of Jesus' crucifixion, such as the dislocation of joints, are not described in the biblical accounts. The hypothesis about dislocations is based on medical understanding of what the human body would likely endure under such conditions. There is some variation in historical and medical interpretations of the exact physical traumas experienced during crucifixion. Some researchers who have examined the Shroud of Turin suggest that the way the arms are positioned and the apparent length of the arms could indicate a dislocation of the shoulders. They base this hypothesis on the angles and positioning of the body as imprinted on the cloth.
Analysis of the Shroud's Image: Some researchers who have studied the Shroud of Turin claim that the image depicts a man whose arms are extended longer than normal, suggesting a lengthening of the arms. They attribute this elongation to the dislocation of shoulders, elbows, and possibly wrists, as might occur during crucifixion.
Mechanism of Elongation in Crucifixion: In a crucifixion, if the shoulders and perhaps the elbows were dislocated due to the weight of the body hanging from the arms, this could theoretically lead to an apparent lengthening of the arms. Dislocation of these joints would mean that the arms could be stretched beyond their normal length, as the bones would be pulled out of their normal positions in the joints.  

8. In addition, prophecy was fulfilled in Psalm 22:14, “I am poured out like water, and all My bones are out of joint.”
The verse from Psalm 22:14, "I am poured out like water, and all My bones are out of joint," is often interpreted by Christian theologians and believers as a prophetic foreshadowing of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. This Psalm, attributed to King David, contains expressions of distress and a plea for deliverance, and many of its verses are seen as prefiguring the experiences of Jesus, especially during his crucifixion. 

Metaphorical Language: The phrase "I am poured out like water" uses a powerful metaphor to describe a state of extreme weakness and helplessness. In the context of crucifixion, it could symbolize the total physical exhaustion and the draining of strength and life force, akin to water being poured out.
Dislocation Imagery: "All my bones are out of joint" is a vivid depiction of intense physical suffering and could be interpreted as a metaphor for the extreme agony of bodily disintegration. In the context of the crucifixion, this could be seen as reflecting the immense physical strain on Jesus' body, potentially leading to the dislocation of joints, as previously discussed.
Prophetic Interpretation: Psalm 22 is prophetic, with various verses predicting specific aspects of the crucifixion. This verse, in particular, foretells the physical suffering that Jesus would endure, including the potential dislocation of his joints due to the stresses of being crucified.
Symbolism in Christian Theology: The fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies through the life and death of Jesus is central. Verses like Psalm 22:14 are part of a divine plan, foretelling the Messiah's suffering and sacrifice for humanity's redemption.

9. After Jesus’ wrists, elbows, and shoulders were dislocated, the weight of His body on his upper limbs caused traction forces on the Pectoralis Major muscles of His chest wall.  This perspective provides insight into the additional layers of physical suffering that such an ordeal entailed:

Traction Forces on Pectoralis Major Muscles: The Pectoralis Major is a large muscle in the chest responsible for controlling the movement of the arm, such as in activities like pushing or lifting. In the event of upper limb dislocations (at the wrists, elbows, and shoulders), the entire weight of the body would hang from the muscles and ligaments of the chest wall, particularly the Pectoralis Major. This would exert immense traction forces on these muscles.
Impact of Continuous Strain: The sustained strain and stretching would not only be excruciatingly painful but could also lead to tearing or severe straining of these muscles. The Pectoralis Major muscles, already under stress from holding up the weight of the arms, would be further stretched and strained due to the downward pull of the body.
Compromised Respiratory Function: Such traction on the chest muscles would exacerbate the difficulty in breathing, a central feature of the agony of crucifixion. The expanded position of the chest muscles would make it hard to exhale, and the effort to inhale would require lifting the body against this painful stretch, worsening respiratory distress.
Increased Pain with Movement: Each attempt to breathe or adjust position to relieve pain resulted in movement of these strained muscles, intensifying the pain. The cycle of moving to breathe and experiencing increased pain would add to the torment.
Consequences of Prolonged Hanging: The longer Jesus remained on the cross, the greater the strain on these muscles would become. Prolonged hanging led to increased muscle fatigue and damage, potentially causing more severe tearing and long-term damage to the muscle fibers and attachments.
Overall Physiological Stress: The combined effects of pain, muscle damage, and respiratory distress placed immense physiological stress on the body. This stress could contribute to a cascade of other physiological failures, hastening the onset of shock and eventual death.

10. These traction forces caused His rib cage to be pulled upwards and outwards, in a most unnatural state. His chest wall was permanently in a position of maximal respiratory inspiration. In order to exhale, Jesus was physiologically required to force His body. 

Impact on Rib Cage and Chest Wall: The position of crucifixion, with arms stretched and possibly dislocated at the shoulders,  exerted an upward and outward pull on the rib cage. This unnatural positioning would force the chest into a state resembling full inhalation (maximal respiratory inspiration). The muscles and ligaments connected to the rib cage, including the intercostal muscles, were stretched, causing pain and making normal respiratory movements extremely difficult.
Difficulty in Exhaling: In a state of maximal inspiration, the chest wall and lungs are expanded as much as possible, which is the natural state during inhalation. To exhale, one must typically relax the respiratory muscles, allowing the chest to return to its resting state. However, in Jesus' case, due to the forced position of the rib cage, exhaling would require an active and painful movement to counteract the unnatural position enforced by the crucifixion. This would involve pushing down on the feet (which were nailed) and pulling on the arms, causing intense pain at each site of injury.
Increased Respiratory Effort: This unnatural respiratory position significantly increased the effort required for each breath. Breathing under these circumstances was not only painful but also physically exhausting, as it required constant and active movement against severe pain and muscle fatigue.
Aggravation of Pain and Fatigue: Each effort to exhale would aggravate the pain in the nailed limbs and any dislocated joints. Additionally, the constant struggle to breathe would rapidly exhaust the already weakened muscles, making each subsequent breath more difficult and less effective.
Contribution to Fatal Outcome: The altered mechanics of breathing under these conditions contributed to the victim's physical decline. The body's inability to maintain adequate oxygenation and the immense physical strain led to respiratory failure, a critical factor in the fatal progression of crucifixion.

11. His lungs were in a resting position of constant maximum inspiration. Crucifixion is a medical catastrophe. The state of Jesus' lungs during crucifixion highlights the extreme physiological distress of this form of execution. 

Constant Maximum Inspiration: Due to the positioning on the cross, with the arms stretched and possibly dislocated at the shoulders, Jesus' chest cavity was forcibly expanded, much like during deep inhalation. This means his lungs were constantly in a state as if filled with air, without the possibility of normal exhalation. This state impedes normal gas exchange in the lungs.
Impaired Gas Exchange: In a normal respiratory cycle, inhalation brings oxygen into the lungs, and exhalation removes carbon dioxide. However, in the state of constant maximum inspiration, the efficiency of this gas exchange is severely compromised. The body's ability to expel carbon dioxide is reduced, leading to respiratory acidosis, a condition where the blood becomes too acidic.
Increased Cardiac Stress: The impaired respiratory function places additional stress on the heart. The heart must work harder to circulate oxygen-depleted blood, leading to cardiovascular strain. Over time, this can contribute to heart failure, especially under the stress of physical trauma and dehydration.
Aggravation of Pain and Fatigue: The effort required to exhale against the unnatural position of the ribcage and the constant pain from the crucifixion wounds would lead to extreme physical fatigue. Each breath would be a struggle against intense pain, and the effort would become progressively more challenging as Jesus' physical condition deteriorated.
Contribution to Death: The combination of respiratory distress, impaired gas exchange, cardiovascular strain, severe pain, and physical exhaustion all contributed to the fatal outcome of crucifixion. The body's inability to sustain vital functions under these conditions led to death, likely from a combination of respiratory failure, shock, and cardiac arrest.
Comprehensive Suffering: Crucifixion, as experienced by Jesus, represents a comprehensive form of suffering, affecting nearly every system of the body. It's a method of execution that goes beyond simple physical death, inflicting prolonged pain, psychological trauma, and profound physiological distress.

12. The process of respiration caused excruciating pain, mixed with the absolute terror of asphyxiation. 

Excruciating Pain During Respiration: In the crucified position, every breath taken by Jesus would have been extraordinarily painful. To inhale, he would have needed to pull himself up, placing strain on the wounds in his wrists and feet and any dislocated joints. This movement would also stretch the pectoral muscles and the intercostal muscles between the ribs, which were already under severe strain due to the unnatural position of the arms and the expanded chest cavity.
Continuous Cycle of Pain: Breathing is a continuous and necessary action, meaning that Jesus would have had to endure this cycle of pain with each breath. The repeated motion required for breathing not only caused intense pain but also further weakened his already exhausted body.
Fear and Terror of Asphyxiation: Alongside the physical pain of breathing, Jesus would have faced the constant terror of asphyxiation. The body's natural response to insufficient oxygen is panic and a desperate need to breathe more deeply, but in the crucifixion position, deep breaths would be increasingly difficult, heightening the sense of suffocation.
Asphyxiation as a Cause of Death: In crucifixion, death often comes through asphyxiation. The victim, due to fatigue, pain, and the mechanics of the body's position, becomes less and less able to lift themselves to breathe, eventually leading to respiratory failure. This slow progression towards asphyxiation would have been both physically agonizing and psychologically traumatic.
Cumulative Effects of Prolonged Crucifixion: Over time, the combined effects of pain, physical exhaustion, dehydration, and the struggle to breathe would take an increasingly severe toll on the body. The struggle for each breath becomes a desperate battle against the body's failing strength and the unrelenting pain.
Psychological and Emotional Suffering: Beyond the physical agony, the psychological and emotional impact of such a death cannot be understated. The knowledge of the inevitability of asphyxiation, coupled with intense pain and the public nature of the crucifixion, would contribute to a profound sense of despair and suffering.

13. As the six hours of the Crucifixion wore on, Jesus was less and less able to bear His weight on His legs, as His thigh and calf muscles became increasingly exhausted. There was increasing dislocation of His wrists, elbows and shoulders, and further elevation of His chest wall, making His breathing more and more difficult Within minutes of crucifixion Jesus became severely dyspnoeic (short of breath). Increasing Muscle Exhaustion: The thigh and calf muscles, initially used to support much of Jesus' weight and aid in breathing, would have become increasingly exhausted. Muscle fatigue would set in rapidly due to the unnatural position, constant strain, and the effort required to breathe. As these muscles weakened, Jesus would have been less able to use his legs to support his weight and assist in respiration.

Progressive Dislocation of Joints: The weight of Jesus' body, initially partially supported by his legs, would increasingly transfer to his arms as his leg muscles fatigued. This shift in weight bearing would exacerbate the dislocation of his wrists, elbows, and shoulders, caused by the prolonged hanging and repeated movements to facilitate breathing. Each dislocation would not only be excruciatingly painful but would also further impair his ability to move to aid in breathing.
Increased Elevation of Chest Wall: As Jesus' ability to support his weight with his legs diminished, the elevation of his chest wall would become more pronounced. This elevation, in a state of near-permanent inhalation, made exhalation increasingly difficult. The chest and respiratory muscles would be under constant strain, leading to further respiratory distress.
Severe Dyspnea Early On: Dyspnea, or shortness of breath, would have set in relatively quickly after the crucifixion commenced. The combination of the physical strain, the pain from the injuries, and the compromised position of his body would make effective breathing difficult from the outset. As time went on, this dyspnea would become more severe.
Cumulative Effects on Respiration: The cumulative effects of muscle exhaustion, joint dislocation, and chest wall elevation would progressively worsen Jesus' respiratory function. Each breath would require greater effort, while being less effective, leading to decreased oxygenation and increased carbon dioxide levels in the blood.
Physiological Collapse: Over time, the combined effects of physical trauma, respiratory distress, dehydration, and cardiovascular strain would lead to a gradual physiological collapse. The body's systems would become increasingly unable to cope with the demands placed on them, leading to critical failures.
Psychological and Emotional Impact: The increasing physical distress would be accompanied by psychological and emotional suffering. The knowledge of the inevitable outcome, coupled with the unrelenting pain and difficulty breathing, would add to the overall agony of the crucifixion experience.

14. His blood oxygen level began to fall, and He developed Hypoxia (low blood oxygen). In addition, because of His restricted respiratory movements, His blood carbon dioxide (CO2) level began to rise, a condition known as Hypercapnia. As the crucifixion of Jesus progressed, the physiological impacts on his body became increasingly severe, particularly affecting his respiratory and circulatory systems. The development of hypoxia and hypercapnia are critical aspects of this physiological decline:

Development of Hypoxia: Hypoxia refers to a state where there is insufficient oxygen in the blood to meet the body's needs. In Jesus' case, the extreme difficulty in breathing caused by the position on the cross, combined with the physical exhaustion and pain, would impair effective gas exchange in the lungs. The constant state of maximal respiratory inspiration meant that Jesus could not effectively exhale and inhale, leading to a decrease in oxygen absorption into the bloodstream. Prolonged hypoxia would lead to the deterioration of vital organs and contribute to physical weakening.
Onset of Hypercapnia: Concurrently, the restricted respiratory movements would mean that Jesus was unable to exhale adequately. This inadequate exhalation would prevent the normal expulsion of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the body, leading to a condition known as hypercapnia - an excessive accumulation of CO2 in the blood. Hypercapnia can lead to respiratory acidosis, where the blood becomes too acidic, further disrupting the body's normal metabolic processes.
Combined Effect on the Body: The combination of hypoxia and hypercapnia creates a particularly dangerous situation for the body. Hypoxia deprives the body's tissues and organs of essential oxygen, while hypercapnia disrupts the acid-base balance in the blood, affecting various bodily functions. This dual impact would lead to a cascade of physiological failures.
Impact on the Heart and Brain: Hypoxia and hypercapnia would have a particularly detrimental effect on the heart and brain. The heart would struggle to pump oxygen-depleted blood, leading to increased cardiac stress. The brain, highly sensitive to oxygen levels, would be affected by both the lack of oxygen and the elevated CO2 levels, potentially leading to confusion, disorientation, and loss of consciousness.
Progression to Respiratory Failure: Over time, the compounding effects of hypoxia and hypercapnia would lead to respiratory failure. As Jesus' respiratory muscles became increasingly exhausted and unable to function effectively, his ability to breathe would diminish further, accelerating the decline in blood oxygen levels and the increase in CO2 levels.
Contribution to Fatal Outcome: The respiratory distress, characterized by hypoxia and hypercapnia, would contribute significantly to the fatal outcome of crucifixion. Alongside the immense physical pain and psychological trauma, these respiratory complications would play a central role in the eventual cause of death.

15. This rising CO2 level stimulated His heart to beat faster in order to increase the delivery of oxygen, and the removal of CO2. 

Body's Response to Hypercapnia: When CO2 levels in the blood rise, the body naturally responds by trying to increase oxygen delivery and CO2 removal. One of the primary responses is an increase in heart rate. This accelerated heart rate is an attempt to circulate blood more rapidly, facilitating the delivery of oxygen to tissues and the removal of excess CO2 from the body.
Increased Cardiac Workload: The increased heart rate, while a compensatory mechanism, also places additional stress on the heart. In the context of crucifixion, where Jesus was already experiencing significant physical strain and potential dehydration, this increased cardiac workload could contribute to cardiac strain and potential heart failure.
Impact on Circulation and Oxygenation: Despite the heart's efforts to increase circulation, the overall effectiveness of oxygen delivery would still be compromised due to the impaired respiratory function. The struggle to breathe effectively, coupled with the body's weakened state, would limit the amount of oxygen absorbed into the bloodstream.
Synergistic Effect with Hypoxia: The rising CO2 levels and the body's response to hypercapnia would occur in conjunction with hypoxia (low blood oxygen levels). This combination of hypoxia and hypercapnia creates a detrimental cycle: hypoxia stresses the body's tissues, including the heart, which then must work harder due to hypercapnia, further taxing an already stressed system.
Contribution to Physical Decline: The increased heart rate in response to hypercapnia is a stress response and, over time, contributes to the overall physical decline. The heart, already strained from the physical trauma and stress of crucifixion, would be increasingly unable to cope with the additional demands placed on it.
Potential for Cardiac Complications: Prolonged tachycardia (rapid heart rate) under such conditions could lead to various cardiac complications. These could include arrhythmias (irregular heartbeats), myocardial ischemia (reduced blood flow to the heart muscle), or even myocardial infarction (heart attack), especially considering the physical and emotional stress of crucifixion.

16. The Respiratory Centre in Jesus’ brain sent urgent messages to his lungs to breathe faster, and Jesus began to pant. 

Activation of the Respiratory Centre: The respiratory centre in the brain, located in the medulla oblongata, automatically regulates breathing. When faced with hypoxia (low oxygen levels) and hypercapnia (high CO2 levels), as would have been the case during crucifixion, this centre would have sent urgent signals to increase respiratory rate in an effort to enhance oxygen intake and expel more carbon dioxide.
Response to Respiratory Stress: In response to these signals, Jesus would have instinctively begun to breathe faster. This rapid breathing, or panting, is a physiological attempt to compensate for the impaired gas exchange caused by the crucifixion's physical constraints and the body's weakened state.
Limitations of Panting in Crucifixion: While panting is a natural response to respiratory distress, in the context of crucifixion, the effectiveness of this response would be severely limited. The fixed position of the chest and diaphragm due to the crucifixion stance, along with the exhaustion of the respiratory muscles, would make it difficult to achieve the deeper, more effective breaths needed to significantly improve oxygenation.
Increased Respiratory Effort and Fatigue: This rapid, shallow breathing would require continuous, strenuous effort, further exhausting Jesus, who was already physically weakened from blood loss, dehydration, and prolonged suffering. Each attempt to breathe faster would exacerbate the pain from his crucifixion wounds and any joint dislocations.
Inadequate Oxygenation and CO2 Removal: Despite the increased respiratory rate, the compromised lung function and restricted chest movement would mean that the panting would be insufficient to correct the hypoxia and hypercapnia. The body's struggle to oxygenate the blood adequately and remove CO2 would continue, leading to ongoing respiratory distress.
Psychological Impact of Respiratory Distress: The sensation of breathlessness and the inability to breathe effectively can be profoundly distressing. This respiratory struggle would add to the psychological and emotional torment of the crucifixion experience.

16. The crucifixion led to a critical activation of the respiratory centre in Jesus' brain, triggering a desperate response to the escalating respiratory distress:

Activation of the Respiratory Centre: The respiratory centre in the brain, responding to the low oxygen and high CO2 levels, sent urgent signals to increase breathing rate.
Response to Respiratory Stress: Jesus instinctively began to breathe faster in an attempt to improve oxygen intake and expel more CO2.
Limitations of Panting in Crucifixion: Despite the natural inclination to pant, the effectiveness of this response was severely limited by the crucifixion's physical constraints and Jesus' weakened state.
Increased Respiratory Effort and Fatigue: The rapid, shallow breathing required continuous effort, exacerbating Jesus' exhaustion and pain from crucifixion wounds and joint dislocations.
Inadequate Oxygenation and CO2 Removal: The increased respiratory rate was insufficient to correct the hypoxia and hypercapnia due to compromised lung function and restricted chest movement.
Psychological Impact of Respiratory Distress: The distressing sensation of breathlessness and ineffective breathing added to the psychological and emotional torment of the crucifixion experience.

17. Jesus had drunk nothing for 15 hours, since 6 pm the previous evening. Jesus had endured a scourging which nearly killed Him. 

Dehydration: Jesus' last recorded drink was at the Last Supper, which took place the evening before His crucifixion. By the time of His crucifixion, He had not drunk any fluids for about 15 hours. This prolonged period without hydration would have led to significant dehydration, especially considering the physical strain and trauma He had already endured. Dehydration would exacerbate the physical suffering during crucifixion, contributing to weakness, dizziness, and exacerbating the effects of blood loss. Additionally, dehydration would affect the body's ability to regulate temperature, potentially leading to hyperthermia, especially under the Middle Eastern sun.
Effects of Scourging: Prior to His crucifixion, Jesus underwent scourging, a brutal form of punishment that involved being whipped with a flagellum, a whip with multiple thongs, often with metal or bone embedded in them. This would have caused deep, severe lacerations, leading to significant blood loss. The physical trauma from scourging would not only have been immensely painful but also would have weakened Jesus considerably, compounding the effects of dehydration and making Him more susceptible to shock.
Combined Impact on the Crucifixion: The combination of dehydration and the injuries from scourging would have made the experience of crucifixion even more agonizing. Dehydration would have intensified the effects of shock from blood loss, while the wounds from the scourging would have increased the risk of infection and added to the overall pain experienced during the crucifixion.
Psychological and Emotional Toll: Beyond the physical pain, the psychological and emotional impact of enduring scourging and then facing crucifixion would have been immense. The scourging, a prelude to the crucifixion, would have been a clear indication of the further suffering to come, adding to the anguish and dread.
Exacerbation of Other Crucifixion Effects: The weakened state from dehydration and scourging would have made it more difficult for Jesus to support His weight on the cross, exacerbate His respiratory distress, and accelerate the onset of fatigue and physical collapse.

18. He was in First Degree Shock, with Hypovolaemia (low blood volume), Tachycardia (excessively fast Heart Rate), Tachypnoea (excessively fast Respiratory Rate), and Hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating). The condition of Jesus during His crucifixion, as described, indicates that He was likely experiencing the physiological state known as shock, specifically first-degree shock, characterized by several key symptoms:

Hypovolemia (Low Blood Volume): This condition is often caused by severe blood loss, which Jesus would have experienced due to the scourging and the wounds inflicted by the nails during crucifixion. Hypovolemia leads to decreased blood volume, impairing the circulation of blood throughout the body. This insufficient blood flow results in inadequate delivery of oxygen and nutrients to body tissues and organs, which is critical for maintaining bodily functions.
Tachycardia (Excessively Fast Heart Rate): In response to hypovolemia, the body attempts to compensate by increasing the heart rate. This condition, known as tachycardia, is an effort to maintain adequate blood flow and oxygen delivery despite the reduced blood volume. However, this increased heart rate places additional stress on the cardiovascular system, especially in an already weakened state.
Tachypnea (Excessively Fast Respiratory Rate): Similarly, the body responds to the decreased oxygenation in the blood by increasing the respiratory rate. Tachypnea, or rapid breathing, is an attempt to enhance oxygen intake and carbon dioxide expulsion. However, in the context of crucifixion, where normal respiratory function is severely compromised, this response would have been limited in its effectiveness and would have added to the physical strain and discomfort.
Hyperhidrosis (Excessive Sweating): This is a common symptom of shock, as the body attempts to regulate its temperature in response to the physiological stress. Excessive sweating can further exacerbate dehydration, compounding the already critical condition of hypovolemia.
Combined Effect on Jesus' Condition: These symptoms—hypovolemia, tachycardia, tachypnea, and hyperhidrosis—would have combined to create a state of first-degree shock. This condition is characterized by the body's initial response to a significant loss of blood and fluids, and while it represents an attempt to compensate for these losses, it also signifies a severe and life-threatening state.
Progression of Shock: If unaddressed, first-degree shock can progress to more severe stages of shock, leading to organ failure and death. In the case of crucifixion, with no medical intervention and continuous physical trauma, the progression of shock would have been inevitable.

19. Jesus’ lungs probably began to fill up with Pulmonary Oedema.

Pulmonary Edema in Crucifixion: In the context of crucifixion, pulmonary edema could develop as a result of heart and lung failure. The severe physical trauma, combined with the extreme stress on the body, would compromise heart function. This could lead to a backup of fluid in the lungs, as the heart struggles to pump efficiently, causing fluid from the blood vessels to leak into the lung tissue.
Exacerbating Factors: Jesus' prior scourging, dehydration, and the progression into shock (hypovolemic and possibly cardiogenic shock) would further exacerbate the risk of developing pulmonary edema. The combination of blood and fluid loss, rapid heart rate, and respiratory distress creates a situation where the heart and lungs are significantly strained, increasing the likelihood of fluid accumulation in the lungs.
Symptoms and Effects: Pulmonary edema would manifest as difficulty breathing, coughing, and a feeling of suffocation due to the fluid in the lungs. This would add to the already severe respiratory distress caused by the crucifixion, making breathing even more labored and painful.
Evidence in the Sudarium of Oviedo: The Sudarium of Oviedo is a cloth that, according to tradition, covered the face of Jesus after His crucifixion. Some studies and analyses of the Sudarium have suggested that it contains stains consistent with pulmonary edema. These stains are believed to be the result of fluid leakage from the nose and mouth, which can occur in cases of severe pulmonary edema.
Correlation with Crucifixion Trauma: The development of pulmonary edema is consistent with the extreme physical trauma associated with crucifixion. The fluid in the lungs would be a direct result of the cascading failures of multiple body systems under the extreme stress and trauma of crucifixion.
Impact on Jesus' Suffering: If Jesus developed pulmonary edema during crucifixion, it would have significantly intensified His suffering. The sensation of drowning, the increased difficulty in breathing, and the associated pain and discomfort would have compounded the agony of the crucifixion.

20. At this stage Jesus probably developed a Haemopericardium. Plasma and blood gathered in the space around His heart, called the Pericardium. This fluid around His heart caused Cardiac Tamponade (fluid around His heart, which prevented Jesus’ heart from beating properly).

Haemopericardium Development: Haemopericardium refers to the accumulation of blood and plasma in the pericardial sac, the membranous envelope surrounding the heart. This condition could have developed as a result of the extreme physical trauma, stress, and physiological disruptions caused by the crucifixion. The trauma from the scourging, the strain of crucifixion, and the compromised cardiovascular state could have led to bleeding into the pericardial space.
Progression to Cardiac Tamponade: As blood and fluid accumulate in the pericardium, they create pressure on the heart, leading to a condition known as cardiac tamponade. In cardiac tamponade, the pressure from the fluid in the pericardial space restricts the heart's ability to expand and fill with blood properly. This restriction severely impairs cardiac function.
Impaired Heart Function: The pressure exerted by the fluid accumulation in the pericardial sac hampers the heart's ability to pump blood effectively. This results in a significant reduction in cardiac output, meaning less blood and oxygen are circulated to the body's organs and tissues. In a state of already reduced blood volume due to injuries and dehydration, this further compromises the body's physiological stability.
Symptoms and Consequences: Symptoms of cardiac tamponade include shortness of breath, rapid heart rate, and low blood pressure. As the condition worsens, it can lead to loss of consciousness and, without intervention, death. In the context of crucifixion, where medical intervention was not an option, cardiac tamponade would have been a critical and potentially fatal development.
Cumulative Effect of Trauma: The development of haemopericardium and cardiac tamponade in the crucifixion scenario would be a culmination of the multiple traumas inflicted on Jesus' body. These conditions would not only exacerbate the physical agony but also contribute significantly to the progression towards death.
Impact on Overall Suffering: This cardiac complication would add to the overall suffering experienced during the crucifixion. The physical symptoms, coupled with the psychological stress of increasingly impaired cardiac function, would contribute to the profound agony of the ordeal.

21. Because of the increasing physiological demands on Jesus’ heart, and the advanced state of Haemopericardium, Jesus probably eventually sustained Cardiac Rupture. His heart literally burst. This was probably the cause of His death. In addition to the severe physical trauma, psychological stress, and dehydration, there was the significant factor of Haemopericardium – the accumulation of blood in the pericardial sac surrounding the heart. This condition likely resulted from the injuries sustained during the crucifixion process, such as the scourging and the nailing to the cross, which could have caused internal bleeding. As the Haemopericardium progressed, the pressure within the pericardial sac would have increased, impeding the normal function of the heart. This would have led to a dramatic reduction in cardiac output, meaning the heart could not pump blood effectively throughout the body. The combination of blood loss, shock, and reduced cardiac function would have placed immense strain on Jesus' heart. The culmination of these factors could have led to a Cardiac Rupture, where the heart muscle itself is torn. This is a catastrophic event and would have been rapidly fatal. In such a scenario, a Cardiac Rupture would likely have been the immediate cause of death. This interpretation aligns with some analyses of the biblical description of the spear thrust into Jesus' side after his death, which produced a flow of blood and water, possibly indicating the release of blood and pericardial fluid. This explanation, while medically plausible, is based on interpretations of historical and religious texts, and there is no direct medical evidence to confirm the exact cause of Jesus' death.

22.  Throughout all this the leaders of the Jews, the crowds, and the thieves on both sides of Him were jeering, swearing and laughing at Him. In addition, Jesus’ own mother was watching. The psychological and emotional aspects of Jesus' crucifixion add a deeply poignant layer to the already immense physical suffering he endured. The presence of mocking crowds, the thieves crucified alongside him, and the sight of his own mother among the onlookers contribute significantly to the overall agony of the experience:

Mockery and Derision from Onlookers: The Gospels describe how various groups, including some of the Jewish leaders and members of the crowd, mocked and jeered at Jesus as he hung on the cross. Such taunts and derision, especially amidst intense physical suffering, would have inflicted additional psychological pain. Being ridiculed and scorned by those he had come to teach and save added a layer of emotional trauma to his physical torment.
Insults from the Crucified Thieves: Initially, both thieves crucified alongside Jesus are said to have reviled him, though later accounts in the Gospels describe one thief defending Jesus and asking to be remembered in his kingdom. The initial insults from these fellow sufferers would contribute to the sense of isolation and universal derision.
Witnessing His Mother's Suffering: The presence of Mary, Jesus' mother, at the crucifixion added a profoundly personal dimension to his suffering. The emotional pain of a son knowing his mother is witnessing his slow, agonizing death would be immense. For Mary, the sight of her son in such a state would be an unimaginable sorrow.
Sense of Abandonment: Jesus' expression of feeling forsaken, as recounted in the Gospels ("My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?"), reflects a profound sense of abandonment. This sentiment, rooted in physical and psychological agony, is a powerful testament to the depth of his despair in that moment.
Humiliation: Crucifixion was not just a death; it was a method of public humiliation. Jesus, a figure of respect and reverence among his followers, was subjected to a death reserved for the worst criminals. This public humiliation, witnessed by those he taught, added to the psychological burden of the experience.
Emotional Strain of Injustice: The knowledge of being unjustly condemned, and suffering for crimes he did not commit, would add to the emotional strain. The injustice of the situation — the betrayal, the false accusations, and the rejection by the very people he sought to save — would compound the psychological suffering.
Physical Pain Exacerbating Psychological Distress: Extreme physical pain and progressive debilitation would also impact Jesus' psychological state, as physical suffering and psychological well-being are deeply interconnected. The relentless physical agony would exacerbate the psychological and emotional distress.

23. Jesus died after six hours of the most excruciating and terrifying torture ever invented. Jesus died so that ordinary people like you and me could go to Heaven. The crucifixion of Jesus is one of the most profound narratives in history, symbolizing the ultimate sacrifice for the redemption of humanity.  Jesus underwent six hours of intense and horrifying torture through crucifixion, which is considered one of the most brutal and painful methods of execution ever devised. This represents not just physical suffering but also immense spiritual and emotional anguish. The significance of Jesus' crucifixion extends beyond the physical pain endured. It is seen as a sacrifice made for the sins of humanity. This act of selfless love and suffering was necessary to bridge the gap between humanity and God, which was created by sin. By enduring the cross, Jesus took upon himself the sins of the world, offering redemption and the possibility of reconciliation with God. Jesus died so that ordinary people could attain salvation and the promise of eternal life in Heaven. The doctrine of atonement is that through Jesus' sacrifice, those that repent from their sins and believe are forgiven for their sins and can achieve salvation not through their own merits but through faith in Jesus Christ. This message of hope and grace is central to Christian teachings and has been a source of comfort and inspiration for billions of believers throughout history.

Jesus’ Suffering and Crucifixion - A Medical Point of View
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0B3kgiLxybY



What was crucifixion like?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V0gNIL5GAdE&t=127s

Jesus' Suffering and Crucifixion From a Medical Point of View

The following is a transcription of an article given by Dr.Keith Maxwell, a medical doctor in Asheville, N.C.

This article is approached from the perspective of how a physician would assess the injuries of Jesus if he were there to see the actual physical trauma he experienced. Dr. Maxwell speaks plainly, with as little medical jargon as possible. His development of this topic began to evolve one night when Dr. Maxwell, in the emergency room, thought to himself, "If they brought the Lord in here, exactly what would his physical injuries be like?"

He hopes through this article to reveal some things that will make us meditate on the actual suffering Jesus experienced in the last hours of his life. In the notes that follow are his conclusions about the death of Jesus based on his research, experience as a trauma physician and his understanding of scripture.

"You may or may not have thought of some of the things I'll point out to you tonight, but I hope I can share some things with you that will make the life and death of our Saviour a little bit more precious.

By the time he was crucified, Jesus had been up about thirty-six hours without any sleep. We know from biblical accounts that Jesus was an early riser. There are several places in the gospels where he arose early and went and prayed. We have no reason to believe that he did anything other than that the day he had his last meal with his disciples. He likely arose early that morning, spent his day, and subsequently had dinner with the disciples that night - the last supper in the upper room. He was then taken prisoner in the garden of Gethsemane, was led all about the old city of Jerusalem and was tried at least twice. The next day at about daybreak he was actually hung on the cross, and hung there throughout that day. Between the time he arose and the time he actually died on the cross, a period of about thirty-six hours had passed, with no sleep or rest.

Something else you may not have thought of was how far Jesus actually walked about in the old city of Jerusalem. We know he was led about from the chief priest's house to Herod's to Pilate's during the time that he was being tried, and we know he was led all about the old city of Jerusalem. If you add it up, he walked about two and one half miles that last night. Also, as best we can ascertain from historical accounts, Jesus carried his cross about a third of a mile before he collapsed and wasn't able to carry it anymore. These are some physical exertions that added up, place stress on a person.

The next thing I want to talk about is a phenomenon called hemathidrosis. Hemathidrosis is a very rare medical phenomenon that's been reported about twelve to fourteen times in world medical literature and is only seen in people who are under tremendous stress and agony. In hemathidrosis, a person actually exudes blood from every sweat gland in their body. Each sweat gland has a small capillary that surrounds it, and in hemathidrosis, that small capillary ruptures. As it bursts, a person actually bleeds into their sweat glands. Instead of perspiring sweat, if you will, they actually perspire blood. The Bible gives an excellent description of this phenomenon, saying that the Lord's sweat became as great drops of blood. Indeed, every pore of Jesus' body oozed and drained blood.

Now, I believe that Christ was a man just as much as any one of us. But at the same time, I believe that Christ was God and knew the terrible fate that lay ahead of him. He knew the job he had come to this earth to do, the mission he had to fulfill, and I believe the man part of Christ dreaded this agonizing death and torture that lay a few hours ahead of him just as much as anyone of us would. We know he prayed in the garden of Gethsemane, saying 'Father, if it be your will, let this cup pass from me.' But he submitted his will to his Father's. There in the garden of Gethsemane, Jesus was under about as much anxiety and physical stress from an emotional standpoint that a human could experience, knowing that in a few hours he would be delivered into one of the most agonizing and brutal deaths ever recorded in history.

Why didn't the Lord bleed to death if he bled out of every sweat gland in his body? If you've been to Israel, as I have, you know that this time of year you have warm days and cool nights. It was this cool night air that probably caused the Lord's damp skin, covered with sweat and blood, to chill, causing the capillaries to constrict and stop the bleeding. This same chilling in the cold night air has kept many a drunk and hoodlum who I've seen shot or stabbed and who's then lain in a ditch all night, from dying. It causes the blood vessels to constrict and causes the blood loss to be minimal. But by the time Jesus was taken by the soldiers from the garden of Gethsemane, he probably had a mixture of sweat and blood over his entire body surface. I can imagine this was some sight to behold.

Let's talk about the scourging. Scourging was such a horrible torture that Roman citizens were forbidden to be scourged - only slaves and traders could be scourged. It was one of the worst punishments the Romans had to inflict on a human body. Typically, the victim was stripped completely naked and tied by his wrists to a post or wall with his back exposed. He was then whipped from the back of his arms, down his shoulders and back, across his bare buttocks, down the back of his legs and calves, all the way down to his heels by two Roman legionnaires, one on either side, alternating blows.

The historical accounts tell us that the traditional scourging consisted of thirty-nine lashes. If you can, imagine two large, strong, burly Roman legionnaires (someone that we would equate to say, a pro football player today) with a wooden handled whip about eighteen inches long that had nine leather thongs, something akin to what we would call a cat-o-nine tails. The n ine leather thongs were about six to seven feet long, and at the end of each thong was some lead shod, like a sinker you'd use to go fishing. Attached to the lead shod were pieces of sheep and cattle bone. The idea of those small pieces of bone was that, as the Roman legionnaire would beat his victim, snapping his wrist would cause the weight of the metal shod to dig into the back, while the sheep/cattle bone cut the skin.

As the sheep/cattle bone lacerated the skin and actually dug in under the surface of the skin, the skilled and trained legionnaire could whip his wrist and literally lift small shards of skeletal muscle out through the skin, leaving small ribbons of muscle, about two inches long, hanging through the skin."

"When I was working on this, I looked at in the cadaver lab and did some dissection, trying to figure out what one blow like this would mean to you and me. As best I could tell, and from some of the information I was able to gather from the Shroud of Turin exhibit, one lash with this whip - one thong - would make a cut about two inches long and about three-quarters to an inch deep. To put that into medical terms, that's a cut that takes about twenty stitches to close. So with one lash, one swing of the whip, a total of nine lacerations could be inflicted on the victim, each laceration two inches long and three-quarters to one inch deep.

With one blow, one Roman legionnaire could inflict enough wounds to take one hundred eighty stitches to close. If you multiply that times thirty-nine, those two Roman legionnaires inflicted enough lacerations to take about 2,000 stitches to close. I've seen people who've gone through the windshield of a car or wrecked a motorcycle into a barbed wire fence, and I've still never seen anyone that tattered up in any of my medical experience. This gives you an idea of the amount of the physical trauma that was inflicted upon Jesus just from the scourging.

Again you'd ask why Jesus didn't bleed to death. And again, you have to remember that this was done in the cold night air, the very thing that caused his blood vessels and capillaries to constrict and actually cause the blood loss from this beating to be minimal.

As mentioned, the idea of the lead weight was to lift the skeletal muscle out. Imagine having a cut on your skin with an inch of muscle pulled out through the cut, exposed to the night air. We see this sometimes in stab wounds or when people are stabbed with sharp objects like sticks and the muscles are pulled back through the skin. The purpose this served in the scourging was, that as the victim hung on the cross in the heat of the day, birds could light on him and actually peck and pull at these pieces of muscle, just like a robin trying to pull a worm out of the ground.

Frequently, how long a person actually survived on the cross during the crucifixion was determined by how severely he was scourged. Sometimes they would beat a man nearly to death before they put him on the cross and he would only live a few hours. Most of the time, though, the scourging was intended for public humiliation and embarrassment, because it was such an inhumane method of torture.
Another thing you may not have considered....TV. has done a real injustice to trauma, depicting men in bar room fights who take blows to the face or head and jump up and beat up three or four men. I can tell you that it's really not that way in real life. If I took any one of the men here, tied his hands behind him and then let any other man of average size and build beat him in the face with his fists open and closed, I cannot begin to tell you the amount of trauma this would inflict on him.

We know that Jesus was beaten in the face and head as he was mocked. I can assure you with all confidence that by the time the Lord was crucified after his beatings, it's almost certain that both of his eyes were swollen shut and no doubt his nose was pouring blood. I can also tell you that when people are struck in the mouth with a fist, the first thing that happens is that the lower teeth come right through the lip. I've taken care of many people in the emergency room who've come in beaten up in fights with their teeth sticking through their lips, both upper and lower sides. If Jesus was tied and held and beaten in the face by these strong legionnaires, I don't think there's any doubt that his lips were tattered like paper and some of his teeth were knocked loose or maybe even knocked out. You might ask if his jaw bones were broken. Normally they would be, but not in Jesus' case, and I'll tell you why in a few minutes.

During Jesus' trials and humiliation, we also know that a crown of thorns was plaited and placed on his head. In Christ's case this was done to mock him as being King of the Jews. Some of you have been to Israel and have seen these thorns. They're about an inch and one-half to two inches long, and they're as sharp as an ice pick. The custom was to take a small three or four-foot-long reed and slap the thorns on top of the head of the victim in order to drive the thorns into the skull. Those thorns laid upon someone's head and then tapped down with a reed were hard enough to penetrate the outer table or the outer bone of the skull. Imagine the bleeding from three or four hundred puncture wounds on the scalp and around the forehead from these thorns.

So, before Jesus' crucifixion ever begins, his face has been beaten to a pulp, no doubt his eyes were swollen shut, his nose is bloodied, and I remind you that every pore in his skin has wept and oozed blood. Every visible surface on the good Lord Jesus, I am confident, was covered and caked with dried blood. And his back and his arms and his buttocks and the back of his legs were literally torn to shreds from the scourging. This was the shape Jesus was in before they ever gave him his cross to head out to Calvary."

"Now, one of the things I take issue with from agnostics who I've heard debate this: I do not think the Lord died from shock secondary to blood loss. There is nothing that Jesus said on the cross and nothing in the description of the crucifixion in any of the gospels that give us any idea that Jesus was in shock before he died. How do I know that? When someone is shot or hit by a car and comes to the emergency room, they're not sitting up talking to you. Their eyes are glassy, their color is pale, their blood pressure is about sixty over nothing and they're barely conscious, if conscious at all. Jesus never lost consciousness. There's nothing in the description of his trials, his scourging or his time on the cross that tells us he was incoherent mentally or lost consciousness.

Something else, physical stress - everything the Bible tells us about the life of Jesus is that he was a healthy, early-thirties male who lived a rough life. He didn't have a home, he probably slept outside, and he walked everywhere he went. He was probably, as we would say, as tough as a pine knot. I think Jesus was a hardy young man, very strong and stout physically, and that there was nothing weak or puny about him from a medical standpoint, prior to the crucifixion. As far as emotional stress, I don't think Jesus had any kind of nervous breakdown. He was certainly under stress in the garden of Gethsemane, but nothing that he said on the cross gave any indication whatsoever that he was decompensating mentally, even during his gravest hours on the cross.

I've also heard cardiac arrhythmia debated as a cause of Jesus' death. When people go into cardiac arrhythmia, if it's ventricular tachycardia or some of the other types of cardiac arrhythmia, one of the first things that happens is that the heart, even though it beats fast or funny, doesn't function very well as a pump. When it doesn't function well as a pump, your blood pressure drops, and you lose consciousness. Again, nowhere in the gospels do we have an account where Jesus ever lost consciousness until he died. Let's talk about the cross for just a minute. We know from Corinthian and Roman history that the crosses were usually in two parts. First, the cross bar, that from very good historical accounts can be estimated to have a weight of 125 to 150 pounds, and to be about the size of a cross tie.



Many of us have stacked or used crossties at one time or another or have certainly seen what they look like on the railroad tracks. I want to remind you that this was a rough, unplanned, unfinished piece of wood with splinters and spikes and rough places in it, just like you would expect to see in a railroad cross-tie. When the victim's final trial and condemnation had taken place, to maximize the shame and suffering, the custom was to tie the crossbar to the victim, and have him carry it through the city from his point of condemnation to his point of execution. Part of the custom was that many times these people would be forced to stagger through the streets after being scourged and beaten, with the cross bar tied to their arms, and to add to the ultimate humiliation, the victim had to bear the cross naked. Imagine how humiliating that would be in this day and time, much less how humiliating and agonizing it must have been for Jesus.



The other part of the cross was an upright part, which is just like a post in the ground. Every major city at that time had an area outside their gates where they performed crucifixions. It was really not only a form of execution, but of entertainment as well. Many of the major cities had areas outside their walls where they would have three or four of these upright posts that were permanent fixtures. Someone condemned to crucifixion would bear the crossbar through the streets to the point of crucifixion, and once there, would be thrown onto the ground. Nails would then be driven through their hands into the crossbar. Then two forks, something similar to pitchforks, would be placed around each end of the crossbar, and they would be boosted up and the crossbar hung on top of the upright post. Once they were braced on the upright post, both feet would then be nailed to the foot piece.

The nail wounds....The Romans practiced crucifixion for hundreds of years, and they perfected the art of pain and suffering. How could a man have spikes driven through his hands and feet and not bleed to death? The Romans figured out that if they drove the spike through a man's wrist right at the middle, they could avoid hitting any arteries or veins.



If you go back and look at the Hebrew word for hand, it's inclusive from the fingertips to about where your wristwatch crosses your wrist. So the hand didn't necessarily mean the palm, and I can tell you, from having been a hand surgeon at one time and from dissecting cadavers to try to see if the muscle was strong enough to hold the body weight, it's not. You can not drive a spike through a man's palm and hang him by it without it pulling right out between his fingers. It is an accepted medical fact that the muscle in your palm is not strong enough to support your body weight. In order to be able to drive spikes through the Lord's hands, they had to drive them through at the wrists. There, there's a very strong ligament, called the traverse carpal ligament, that's strong enough to support the body weight. 



The Romans figured out that if they came about where the crease in the wrist is and drove the spike through this area, they would miss the radial artery (the artery people cut when they try to kill themselves by cutting their wrist - right where the doctor takes your pulse), and they would also miss what we call the ulnar artery over on the little finger side. What they would do though, is drive the nail right through the biggest nerve in the hand, called the median nerve. If any of y'all have ever had carpal tunnel syndrome, you know how uncomfortable any inflammation or irritation to that median nerve can be. When the median nerve is transected, it gives about the sensation of having an electric cattle prod stuck to your wrist and a constant electrical shock going through your hand, and causes the fingers to claw. In essence, the Romans devised a way they could drive a spike through a man's hand and not lose one drop of blood while maximizing the amount of pain and suffering that man would endure."



"The Romans did the same thing with the feet. They calculated where they could drive a spike through both a man's feet and not cause blood loss that would cause the victim to bleed to death. The spike would have been placed between the first and second metatarsal bones, missing the dorals pedis artery. There again, they drove the spike through the feet with no blood loss. The spike misses the artery, but does hit the plantar nerves, thereby causing that same horrible shock sensation.



Let's talk now about Jesus hanging on the cross. When hanging by their arms, as a crucifixion victim's body weight sags down, their diaphragm functions like a billows. As the diaphragm drops into the abdomen it pulls in air, so someone hanging on the cross had no difficulty whatsoever pulling air into their lungs. The tough part for people hanging on the cross was breathing out. In order for a crucifixion victim to exhale, they would have to pull up against the spikes with their hands, and push up against the spikes with their feet. I want to remind you - here's Jesus hanging on the cross, probably naked in front of the whole city of Jerusalem. I've already described his back to you.

Every time he took a breath, that tattered, lacerated and riddled back was drug and scraped across the splinters and the rough knobs and spikes protruding from the cross. Each time he breathed out, each time he uttered a word, he would have to pull up with his arms and push up with his legs. That's why I want to remind you just how precious Jesus' words from the cross were. That's why he couldn't say more than three or four words at a time. Because when you talk, you only talk as you breathe out, not as you breathe in. Every word Jesus spoke on the cross was spoken as he was pulling up against the nails and dragging his back across the cross.



That's why what the Lord tells us - what he spoke from the cross - is very precious to me, because I know what it cost him and how badly it hurt him. Every time I give this talk it reminds me how he died for us and just how every word hurt and how he suffered just to give us every word. What did he say? He said, 'Behold your son." And then he said 'Behold your mother.' Jesus knew he had just about finished his job and done everything that he'd come into this world to fulfil and do. Finally, when he had done all of that, he said, 'It is finished.' And when he said 'It is finished", that's the last time he p ulled up with his hands and pushed up with his feet, dragging his back across the cross as he hung there naked before the city of Jerusalem in total shame and humiliation. Convicted and tortured and condemned for something of which he was not guilty.

If you go back and look at historical accounts, you find that people actually lived on the cross, crucified, for up to six days. If you can, imagine a man hanging on a cross outside the gates of a city with the birds pecking at his eyes and roosting on his head, as he hangs there naked as a spectacle for the whole city. That was the point of this. It was part of the shame and humiliation that a man hang there so people could come by for a day or two and stand and mock and jeer and shout accusations and railings and blasphemy at him. The idea was to make him suffer as much as possible. Crucifixion was never intended to kill anybody.

*Crucifixion was never intended to kill anybody.* It was only intended to make a human being suffer as much as could be inflicted upon him before killing him by breaking his legs.

But I don't believe Jesus died from crucifracture or from exhaustion asphyxia either. Crucifracture is what they would do when they simply grew tired of watching this agony and suffering or when they had something better to do and wanted to end a crucifixion. They would take a spear and swing it like a ball bat and hit the victim in the shins to break his shin bones. They'd break the tibula and the fibula bone. Many times they would have to beat the legs for five or ten minutes until they finally could break the shin bones - it takes a lot of force to break your shin bone. With the shin bone broken, the victim could no longer push up to breathe.

Why didn't they break Jesus' legs? If you go back to the Psalms - I believe the 34th chapter - it says "Not a bone of his body was broken." This is why Jesus' nose and jaws and cheekbones should have been broken but couldn't have been. The 34th chapter of Psalms wouldn't let that take place. And that's why the Roman centurion didn't break his legs, because the Bible says "Not a bone of his body was broken."

That was totally uncharacteristic of the crucifixion, because that's how crucifixion victims died. When they grew tired of you and got bored with the situation they'd break your legs and in about four to six minutes you'd smother to death, because you could no longer push up with your legs. You laid there sagging, unable to breathe out, and you were asphyxiated in about four to six minutes. That's how the two thieves died. But Jesus was dead already.

Let's go back to the 19th chapter of John. What happened? What did they do when they went to the first thief? The Roman centurion broke his legs. What did he do when he went to the second thief? He broke his legs. But when the centurion went to Jesus, the Bible says he was dead already.
Now why would a young, strapping, healthy man be dead after being on the cross for six hours? There's absolutely no medical explanation for it at all. Excuse my interpretation here, but the Lord had no business being dead. He should have been alive just like the other two.

He wasn't beaten to the point of death, his blood loss was minimal and we know he wasn't in shock, because everything he told us from the cross made sense. He identified his mother standing at some distance from the foot of the cross. He was able to see enough to identify her and to identify one of the disciples. And everything he said was coherent. He was not out of his mind and he was not having a nervous breakdown, and he wasn't even in shock from blood loss. The Lord was perfectly coherent and sane up to the moment he died."

"The spear wound to the Lord's side was not the cause of his death either. When the centurion saw that Jesus was dead already, he thrust a spear into Jesus' side. The Bible says in Zachariah that they may look upon him who they've pierced. The spear thrust was biblical prophecy fulfilled. That was one of the reasons why Jesus was already dead; God had a plan that we were to look upon the one they had pierced - Zachariah had to be fulfilled.
Roman centurions were trained killers.

They were taught how to deliver death blows that would take a man's life in a matter of seconds. I've taken care of many gunshot victims to the chest. A person can take a .22 through the left side of the heart and likely come in sitting up talking to you. However, if you're stabbed or shot on the right side of the heart, where the inferior and superior vena cava are emptying into the right side of the heart, you're unconscious and pretty close to dead in about twenty to thirty seconds.

This blow to Jesus was no doubt delivered from the right side through the right lung into the heart and on into the spine. It would have penetrated somewhere between the seventh and eighth intercostal space probably on the right. But the Bible says that blood and water came out of Jesus' side after the spear was thrust in. Now if you take a unit of blood, drain it out of a human being's body, put it in a quart jar and set it on top o f a desk, in about thirty minutes the red blood cells begin to settle out and the plasma rises to the top. The plasma separates from the red blood cells. When the soldier thrust the spear into the Lord's side, Jesus had already been dead for thirty or forty-five minutes. Maybe you've never thought about that. The spear wound did not take the life of the Lord Jesus; he was dead already when they thrust the spear into his side.

So let me conjecture a little about what I think. I think there's a very good description of the crucifixion in the Bible and there's very good medical evidence that can be pulled out of that description that tells us that the Lord did not die in the manner that most crucifixion victims die. When the Roman centurion went to him to break his legs, he was dead already. They couldn't break his legs because the Bible said in Psalms, "Not a bone of his body shall be broken." Why then would the soldier thrust a spear into his side? Because Zachariah told us hundreds of years before that we'd look upon him that we'd pierced. And what came out? Blood and water - I think there's enough medical evidence there that the Lord was dead at least a half an hour.

So what took the Lord's life? No man did. No man, no Roman centurion, no cross took Jesus' life. He was able to do something I've never seen another human being do - he laid down his life. When it was finished and with a loud voice, he gave up the ghost. Jesus gave his life."

"The reason my Father loves me is that I lay down my life - only to take it up again. No one takes it from me, but I lay it down of my own accord. I have authority to lay it down and authority to take it up again. This command I received from my Father." (NIV) John 10:17,18

I'm deeply blessed ... Our Lord conquers death and gives life ..Amen?!

Dr.Keith Maxwell: Jesus' Suffering and Crucifixion From a Medical Point of View 2007

The agony of breathing on the cross

Due to "reverse breathing", every one of Jesus' last words was spoken through the most severe agony: He had to pull Himself up on the nails in order to exhale, not inhale. The crucifixion of Jesus is a subject of deep historical and theological significance, and the physical agony He endured is a crucial aspect of this event. One of the most excruciating aspects of crucifixion is the process of breathing, particularly in the context of what is known as "reverse breathing."

In a typical scenario of crucifixion, the victim is suspended by the arms, which are often nailed to the crossbar of the cross. This position greatly restricts the natural movement of the muscles and the diaphragm, which are essential for breathing. The body's weight pulls down on the arms and shoulders, causing severe strain and making it extremely difficult to breathe normally.

In the case of Jesus, as described in historical accounts, to breathe while on the cross, He would have had to pull Himself up by pushing against the nails that pierced His feet and pulling on the nails in His wrists. This action would cause excruciating pain due to the nails tearing through flesh and bone. Every breath would require this agonizing movement, making each inhalation and exhalation a moment of intense suffering.

Additionally, the position on the cross would cause the chest to be in a perpetual state of inhalation, thus the term "reverse breathing." To exhale, Jesus would have had to lift His body to relieve the pressure on His chest and lungs. This goes against the natural process of breathing where exhalation is typically a passive process, not requiring such painful effort.

Furthermore, the prolonged hanging on the cross would lead to a gradual asphyxiation, as the body becomes less and less capable of the strenuous movements required to breathe. The heart and lungs would be under immense stress, leading to further complications and increasing agony.

The pain of crucifixion was not only physical but also psychological and emotional. The public nature of the crucifixion, the prolonged suffering, and the knowledge of impending death would have added to the torment experienced by Jesus.

This description of the agony of breathing on the cross illustrates the extreme physical suffering that was endured. It's a poignant reminder of the depth of suffering involved in this form of capital punishment, particularly in the context of Jesus' crucifixion, which holds significant spiritual meaning in Christian theology.

How Jesus Suffered for Humanity - Facts on Jesus' Crucifixion and Death

Crucifixion, with its origins dating back to the ancient Persians around 300 BC and later adopted by the Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans circa 100 BC, is a historically brutal form of execution. The Romans, known for their methodical and excruciating version, used it both for execution and as a deterrent against crimes.

1. The term "excruciating" is intrinsically linked to crucifixion. Derived from the Latin "excruciatus," meaning "out of the cross," it highlights the extreme pain associated with this method of capital punishment. Crucifixion was intended as a slow, agonizing death, causing the victim to endure multiple physical traumas.

2. The application of crucifixion in Roman times, often reserved for the most egregious criminals, contextualizes the crucifixion of Jesus. Typically, it was used for slaves, pirates, and notorious criminals, symbolizing the gravity with which Roman and religious authorities viewed Jesus' actions and teachings. The moment in Mark 15:23, where Jesus refuses the wine mixed with myrrh, an "anaesthetic wine," is pivotal. This refusal, aligning with Jesus' prophecy in Matthew 26:29 about abstaining from the fruit of the vine, can be interpreted in several ways:

Fulfillment of Prophecy: By declining the wine, Jesus ensured he remained fully conscious, thus fulfilling the scriptures about the Messiah's suffering and death.
Spiritual Readiness: This act might symbolize his preparedness to embrace his suffering and death with complete awareness, rejecting any pain relief.
Symbolic Representation: Within the context of the Last Supper, the wine was symbolic of his blood, shed for the forgiveness of sins. Refusing it at the crucifixion could signify his sacrifice was ongoing.
Eschatological Significance: His statement about drinking anew in the Father's kingdom alludes to a future hope and promise, indicating the current suffering was part of a larger divine plan of redemption and salvation.

3. The narrative of Jesus being stripped and Roman guards casting lots for his clothing, as mentioned in John 19:23-24 and echoing Psalm 22:18, is a crucial element in the crucifixion story:

Fulfillment of Prophecy: This act is seen as a direct fulfillment of the prophecy in Psalm 22:18, important to early Christians and the Gospel authors.
Roman Crucifixion Practices: Roman crucifixion also served as extreme humiliation, often involving the condemned being crucified naked to amplify their shame.
Jewish Customs and Sensitivities: In contrast, Jewish culture, emphasizing modesty, viewed public nudity as deeply shameful. There's debate about the extent to which Roman authorities might have modified crucifixion practices in Judea to respect Jewish customs, possibly allowing some minimal covering.
Historical Interpretations: While some suggest Jesus wasn't fully naked on the cross, considering Jewish customs, others argue that the Romans might have enforced full nudity to maximize humiliation.
Artistic Representations: Artistic depictions over centuries have generally shown Jesus with a loincloth, likely reflecting later Christian sensibilities rather than historical accuracy.

4. The crucifixion of Jesus, like any crucifixion, ensured a horrific, slow, and painful death. The anatomical and physiological stresses placed on the body are profound:

Position of the Body: Arms stretched and affixed to the crossbar, often by nailing through the wrists or hands, put immense strain on the shoulders, arms, and chest, complicating breathing and comfort.
Respiratory Distress: The stretched muscles used for breathing cannot function properly. Inhaling required the victim to pull up by their arms and push down with their feet, causing extreme pain, especially after scourging.
Effects of Hanging by the Arms: Extended periods of hanging by the arms lead to muscle fatigue, severe pain from hyperextension of joints and ligaments, and potential shoulder dislocation.
Blood Circulation and Nerve Damage: Nailing the hands and feet causes severe nerve and blood vessel injury, intense pain, blood loss, and tissue damage. Impaired circulation exacerbates pain and complications.
Compounding Factors: Dehydration, exposure, and psychological trauma of public humiliation intensify the agony. These factors lead to fatal physiological failures.
Cause of Death: Death in crucifixion varies; it could be due to hypovolemic shock, exhaustion asphyxia, dehydration, or heart failure.

5. Jesus' position on the cross, with knees flexed at about 45 degrees, highlights the extreme physical distress of crucifixion:

Muscle Fatigue and Cramps: Maintaining this semi-squat position strains the thigh muscles, causing rapid onset of fatigue and painful cramping.
Compromised Blood Circulation: This position compromises blood circulation to the lower limbs, contributing to muscle fatigue and cramps.
Increased Pain with Movement: Any movement to alleviate leg pain causes pulling at the wrist and feet wounds, intensifying the pain cycle.
Joint Stress and Dislocation: The position places extreme stress on knee and hip joints, potentially leading to dislocation and further injury.
Limitations of Movement: Increasing fatigue and pain make movement difficult, leading to respiratory distress and asphyxiation.
Contribution to Cause of Death: The combined effects contribute to physiological breakdown, potentially hastening death due to shock, respiratory failure, or other complications.

6. The process of crucifixion, particularly the weight-bearing aspect, underlines its excruciating nature:

Initial Weight Bearing on Feet: Initially, the feet bear the body's weight, causing excruciating pain and potential damage to bones, nerves, and blood vessels.
Muscle Fatigue in Lower Limbs: Muscle fatigue and cramps in the legs worsen over time, exacerbated by blood loss and physical exhaustion.
Transfer of Weight to the Upper Body: As leg strength diminishes, the body's weight shifts to the wrists, arms, and shoulders, involving painful cyclic movements.
Stress on the Wrists and Arms: This transfer places enormous stress on the wrists, arms, and shoulders, causing intense pain, joint dislocation, and nerve damage.
Compromised Respiratory Function: This process severely compromises respiratory function, with each breath requiring painful movement.
Vicious Cycle of Pain and Exhaustion: The need to breathe intensifies pain, leading to rapid exhaustion and diminishing breathing capacity.
Psychological and Emotional Suffering: The physical agony is compounded by psychological and emotional suffering, including humiliation, abandonment, and anticipation of pain.

7. The hypothesis of dislocations in Jesus' shoulders, elbows, and wrists shortly after being placed on the cross is based on the understanding of the extreme physical trauma in crucifixion:

Stress on the Shoulders: Arms stretched and affixed to the crossbar place enormous strain on the shoulder joints. The weight of Jesus' body, especially after scourging, could lead to shoulder dislocations as ligaments and muscles are overstretched.
Elbows and Wrists Strain: The body's sagging due to gravity and muscle fatigue further stresses the elbows and wrists. The unnatural position and weight can lead to hyperextension and potential dislocation.
Cyclic Movement Increasing Risk of Dislocation: Repeated movements to breathe strain all upper body joints. Each lift to breathe increases stress on the overburdened joints, making dislocations more likely.
Cumulative Effect of Trauma: The cumulative effect of nailing, body weight, struggle to breathe, and movements would likely lead to gradual dislocation of these joints.
Physiological Implications: Dislocations impair the ability to lift oneself to breathe, hastening respiratory distress and contributing to the overall trauma.
Historical and Medical Perspectives: Specific details like joint dislocations are hypotheses based on medical understanding of the crucifixion's stresses. Variations exist in interpretations of the exact physical traumas experienced.
Analysis of the Shroud's Image: Researchers studying the Shroud of Turin suggest that the image depicts a man with elongated arms, indicating a dislocation of shoulders, elbows, and possibly wrists.
Mechanism of Elongation in Crucifixion: Dislocation of shoulders and elbows due to the weight of the body hanging from the arms could theoretically lead to an apparent lengthening of the arms.

8. Psalm 22:14, "I am poured out like water, and all My bones are out of joint," is interpreted as a prophetic foreshadowing of the crucifixion:

Metaphorical Language: "I am poured out like water" symbolizes extreme weakness and helplessness, reflecting the physical exhaustion in crucifixion.
Dislocation Imagery: "All my bones are out of joint" vividly depicts intense suffering, potentially reflecting the physical strain on Jesus' body, including joint dislocations.
Prophetic Interpretation: Psalm 22 is seen as foretelling Jesus' physical suffering, including potential joint dislocations.
Symbolism in Christian Theology: Fulfillment of prophecies like Psalm 22:14 through Jesus' life and death is central, indicating the Messiah's suffering and sacrifice.

9. The dislocation of Jesus’ wrists, elbows, and shoulders exerted traction forces on the Pectoralis Major muscles, adding to the physical suffering:

Traction Forces on Pectoralis Major Muscles: Dislocations cause the body's weight to hang from the chest wall muscles, exerting immense traction on the Pectoralis Major.
Impact of Continuous Strain: Continuous strain could lead to tearing or severe straining of these muscles, exacerbating pain.
Compromised Respiratory Function: Traction on chest muscles complicates breathing, as exhaling becomes difficult and inhaling requires lifting against this painful stretch.
Increased Pain with Movement: Each attempt to breathe or adjust position increases pain in these strained muscles.
Consequences of Prolonged Hanging: Prolonged hanging leads to increased muscle fatigue and damage, causing more severe tearing and damage to muscle fibers.
Overall Physiological Stress: The combined effects of pain, muscle damage, and respiratory distress contribute to physiological failures, hastening shock and eventual death.

10. The traction forces in crucifixion caused Jesus' rib cage to be unnaturally pulled upwards and outwards, permanently positioning His chest in maximal respiratory inspiration:

Impact on Rib Cage and Chest Wall: Crucifixion's arm positioning exerted an upward and outward pull on the rib cage, forcing the chest into a state of full inhalation. Muscles and ligaments connected to the rib cage were stretched, causing pain and hindering normal breathing.
Difficulty in Exhaling: To exhale, Jesus would need to actively counteract this unnatural position by pushing down on the nailed feet and pulling on the arms, causing intense pain.
Increased Respiratory Effort: Breathing under these circumstances required constant, active movement against severe pain and muscle fatigue, making it physically exhausting.
Aggravation of Pain and Fatigue: Each effort to exhale aggravated pain in the nailed limbs and any dislocated joints, and the struggle to breathe exhausted the weakened muscles.
Contribution to Fatal Outcome: The altered breathing mechanics contributed to physical decline, with inadequate oxygenation and physical strain leading to respiratory failure.

11. Jesus' lungs, in a state of constant maximum inspiration during crucifixion, underscore the extreme physiological distress of this execution method:

Constant Maximum Inspiration: Jesus' chest cavity was forcibly expanded as if in deep inhalation, impeding normal gas exchange in the lungs.
Impaired Gas Exchange: The constant state of inhalation compromised efficient gas exchange, reducing the ability to expel carbon dioxide and leading to respiratory acidosis.
Increased Cardiac Stress: The impaired respiratory function put extra stress on the heart, working harder to circulate oxygen-depleted blood, contributing to potential heart failure.
Aggravation of Pain and Fatigue: Exhaling against the unnatural position of the ribcage and constant pain from crucifixion wounds led to extreme physical fatigue.
Contribution to Death: Respiratory distress, impaired gas exchange, cardiovascular strain, severe pain, and exhaustion all contributed to the fatal outcome.
Comprehensive Suffering: Crucifixion represents a form of suffering affecting nearly every body system, inflicting prolonged pain, psychological trauma, and physiological distress.

12. The process of respiration during crucifixion involved excruciating pain and the terror of asphyxiation:

Excruciating Pain During Respiration: Every breath was extraordinarily painful, with the need to pull up against wounds and dislocated joints, stretching strained chest and intercostal muscles.
Continuous Cycle of Pain: The necessary action of breathing meant enduring this cycle of pain continuously, further weakening Jesus' body.
Fear and Terror of Asphyxiation: Alongside physical pain, there was the constant fear of suffocation, with deep breaths becoming increasingly difficult, intensifying the sense of suffocation.
Asphyxiation as a Cause of Death: Asphyxiation is a common cause of death in crucifixion, with victims becoming unable to lift themselves to breathe, leading to respiratory failure.
Cumulative Effects of Prolonged Crucifixion: The combined effects of pain, exhaustion, dehydration, and the struggle to breathe took a severe toll over time.
Psychological and Emotional Suffering: The psychological and emotional impact of such a death, with intense pain, public nature, and inevitability of asphyxiation, contributed to profound despair and suffering.

13. As the crucifixion progressed, Jesus' ability to bear weight on His legs diminished, leading to an escalation of physiological distress:

Increasing Muscle Exhaustion: Over time, the thigh and calf muscles, initially used for support and breathing, became increasingly exhausted due to the unnatural position and constant strain.
Progressive Dislocation of Joints: As Jesus' leg muscles fatigued, his body weight shifted more to his arms, exacerbating dislocations in his wrists, elbows, and shoulders. These dislocations further impaired his ability to aid in breathing and caused excruciating pain.
Increased Elevation of Chest Wall: As his ability to support his weight with his legs decreased, his chest wall's elevation became more pronounced, complicating exhalation and increasing respiratory distress.
Severe Dyspnea Early On: Jesus likely experienced severe shortness of breath early in the crucifixion due to the physical strain, pain from injuries, and the compromised body position.
Cumulative Effects on Respiration: The combination of muscle exhaustion, joint dislocation, and chest wall elevation progressively worsened Jesus' respiratory function, making each breath more laborious and less effective.
Physiological Collapse: Over time, these combined effects led to a gradual physiological collapse, with body systems increasingly unable to cope with the demands placed on them.
Psychological and Emotional Impact: The increasing physical distress was compounded by psychological and emotional suffering, adding to the overall agony of the crucifixion experience.

14. The crucifixion caused a severe impact on Jesus' respiratory and circulatory systems, leading to hypoxia and hypercapnia:

Development of Hypoxia: Jesus' impaired gas exchange in the lungs due to difficulty in breathing led to hypoxia, where blood oxygen levels were insufficient to meet the body's needs.
Onset of Hypercapnia: Restricted respiratory movements resulted in inadequate exhalation and an accumulation of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood, leading to hypercapnia.
Combined Effect on the Body: Hypoxia and hypercapnia created a dangerous situation, depriving tissues and organs of oxygen and disrupting the blood's acid-base balance.
Impact on the Heart and Brain: These conditions placed significant stress on the heart and brain, with the heart struggling to circulate oxygen-depleted blood and the brain affected by both low oxygen and high CO2 levels.
Progression to Respiratory Failure: The compounding effects of hypoxia and hypercapnia eventually led to respiratory failure, as Jesus' respiratory muscles became exhausted and ineffective.
Contribution to Fatal Outcome: Respiratory distress, characterized by hypoxia and hypercapnia, played a central role in the eventual cause of death.

15. The rising CO2 levels in Jesus' body triggered a rapid heart rate to increase oxygen delivery and CO2 removal:

Body's Response to Hypercapnia: To counteract the high CO2 levels, Jesus' body responded by increasing the heart rate, aiming to circulate blood more rapidly for oxygen delivery and CO2 removal.
Increased Cardiac Workload: This heightened heart rate added stress to the heart, especially under the conditions of crucifixion, with physical strain and potential dehydration.
Impact on Circulation and Oxygenation: Despite efforts to increase circulation, oxygen delivery was still compromised due to impaired respiratory function.
Synergistic Effect with Hypoxia: The rising CO2 levels and response to hypercapnia occurred alongside hypoxia, creating a detrimental cycle stressing the body's tissues.
Contribution to Physical Decline: The increased heart rate in response to hypercapnia contributed to overall physical decline, with the heart increasingly unable to cope with the additional demands.
Potential for Cardiac Complications: Prolonged rapid heart rate could lead to various cardiac complications, including arrhythmias, myocardial ischemia, or myocardial infarction.

16. The extreme conditions of the crucifixion led to a critical response from the respiratory centre in Jesus' brain:

Activation of the Respiratory Centre: The respiratory centre in the brain, reacting to low oxygen and high CO2 levels, urgently signaled to increase the breathing rate.
Response to Respiratory Stress: Jesus instinctively began to breathe faster, trying to enhance oxygen intake and expel more CO2.
Limitations of Panting in Crucifixion: Despite instinctive panting, its effectiveness was significantly limited due to the physical constraints of crucifixion and Jesus' weakened state.
Increased Respiratory Effort and Fatigue: The rapid, shallow breathing demanded continuous effort, worsening Jesus' exhaustion and intensifying pain from crucifixion wounds and joint dislocations.
Inadequate Oxygenation and CO2 Removal: Despite the increased respiratory rate, the compromised lung function and restricted chest movement made it inadequate in correcting hypoxia and hypercapnia.
Psychological Impact of Respiratory Distress: The experience of breathlessness and ineffective breathing contributed to the psychological and emotional anguish of the crucifixion ordeal.

17. Jesus' extended period without water and the preceding scourging significantly contributed to His physical suffering:

Dehydration: Having not consumed any fluids for about 15 hours since the Last Supper, Jesus would have been significantly dehydrated by the time of His crucifixion. This dehydration would exacerbate weakness, dizziness, and the effects of blood loss. It also affected the body's ability to regulate temperature, potentially leading to hyperthermia.
Effects of Scourging: The scourging, involving severe whipping, caused deep lacerations, resulting in substantial blood loss. This not only increased pain but also weakened Jesus further, making Him more susceptible to shock.
Combined Impact on the Crucifixion: Dehydration and scourging injuries made the crucifixion more agonizing. Dehydration intensified shock effects, while scourging wounds increased infection risk and overall pain.
Psychological and Emotional Toll: The psychological and emotional impact of enduring scourging, followed by crucifixion, was immense. The anticipation of further suffering added to the anguish.
Exacerbation of Other Crucifixion Effects: Dehydration and scourging injuries made supporting His weight on the cross more difficult, worsened respiratory distress, and accelerated physical collapse.

18. Jesus likely experienced first-degree shock during His crucifixion, characterized by several symptoms:

Hypovolemia (Low Blood Volume): Caused by severe blood loss from scourging and crucifixion wounds, hypovolemia impaired blood circulation and oxygen delivery.
Tachycardia (Excessively Fast Heart Rate): Jesus' body likely responded to hypovolemia by increasing heart rate to maintain blood flow and oxygen delivery.
Tachypnea (Excessively Fast Respiratory Rate): Rapid breathing was a response to decreased oxygenation, but its effectiveness was limited due to crucifixion's impact on respiratory function.
Hyperhidrosis (Excessive Sweating): Common in shock, excessive sweating further exacerbated dehydration.
Combined Effect on Jesus' Condition: These symptoms indicated a state of first-degree shock, a severe and life-threatening condition.
Progression of Shock: Without intervention, first-degree shock likely progressed, leading to organ failure and death.

19. Jesus probably developed pulmonary edema during His crucifixion:

Pulmonary Edema in Crucifixion: Heart and lung failure from severe trauma could lead to pulmonary edema, with fluid backup in the lungs.
Exacerbating Factors: Scourging, dehydration, and shock increased the risk of pulmonary edema.
Symptoms and Effects: Pulmonary edema would cause difficulty breathing, coughing, and a feeling of suffocation, adding to respiratory distress.
Evidence in the Sudarium of Oviedo: Studies of the Sudarium of Oviedo suggest stains consistent with pulmonary edema.
Correlation with Crucifixion Trauma: Pulmonary edema aligns with the physical trauma of crucifixion.
Impact on Jesus' Suffering: Developing pulmonary edema would have significantly intensified Jesus' suffering, adding to the sensation of drowning and increased breathing difficulty.

20. At a critical stage of the crucifixion, Jesus likely developed Haemopericardium and subsequent Cardiac Tamponade, further complicating His dire state:

Haemopericardium Development: The accumulation of blood and plasma in the pericardial sac, likely due to crucifixion trauma, led to Haemopericardium. This condition could have resulted from scourging, the strain of crucifixion, and cardiovascular stress.
Progression to Cardiac Tamponade: The increasing pressure from fluid in the pericardium restricted the heart's expansion, leading to Cardiac Tamponade, severely impairing cardiac function.
Impaired Heart Function: The pressure from the fluid accumulation hampered the heart's ability to pump blood effectively, reducing cardiac output, crucial for blood and oxygen circulation.
Symptoms and Consequences: Symptoms like shortness of breath, rapid heart rate, and low blood pressure indicated worsening Cardiac Tamponade, leading to loss of consciousness and potential death without medical intervention.
Cumulative Effect of Trauma: Haemopericardium and Cardiac Tamponade represented a culmination of multiple traumas, exacerbating physical agony and contributing significantly to Jesus' decline.
Impact on Overall Suffering: This cardiac complication added profoundly to the crucifixion's suffering, both physically and psychologically.

21. The advanced Haemopericardium and physiological stress likely led to Jesus' heart rupturing, a critical factor in His death:

Cardiac Rupture: The intense strain on Jesus' heart, coupled with Haemopericardium, could have caused a Cardiac Rupture, where the heart muscle tears, leading to rapid, fatal consequences.
Biblical Description Alignment: This scenario aligns with biblical descriptions of blood and water flowing from Jesus' side post-mortem, potentially indicating blood and pericardial fluid release.
Medical Plausibility: While this explanation is medically plausible, it is based on historical and religious text interpretations, lacking direct medical evidence.

22. The psychological and emotional torment during the crucifixion was compounded by various factors, intensifying Jesus' suffering:

Mockery and Derision from Onlookers: The jeering and mockery from Jewish leaders and the crowd added a layer of psychological pain to Jesus' physical suffering.
Insults from the Crucified Thieves: Initial insults from thieves crucified alongside Jesus contributed to his sense of isolation and universal derision.
Witnessing His Mother's Suffering: Mary's presence at the crucifixion added emotional pain, knowing his mother witnessed his agonizing death.
Sense of Abandonment: Jesus' expression of feeling forsaken ("My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?") reflects deep despair and a sense of abandonment.
Humiliation: Public humiliation, particularly for a respected figure, added to the psychological burden.
Emotional Strain of Injustice: The injustice of false accusations and rejection by his followers compounded the emotional strain.
Physical Pain Exacerbating Psychological Distress: The relentless physical agony exacerbated psychological and emotional distress, highlighting the interconnectedness of physical suffering and psychological well-being.

Jesus died after six hours of the most excruciating and terrifying torture ever invented. Jesus died so that ordinary people like you and me could go to Heaven. The crucifixion of Jesus is one of the most profound narratives in history, symbolizing the ultimate sacrifice for the redemption of humanity.  Jesus underwent six hours of intense and horrifying torture through crucifixion, which is considered one of the most brutal and painful methods of execution ever devised. This represents not just physical suffering but also immense spiritual and emotional anguish. The significance of Jesus' crucifixion extends beyond the physical pain endured. It is seen as a sacrifice made for the sins of humanity. This act of selfless love and suffering was necessary to bridge the gap between humanity and God, which was created by sin. By enduring the cross, Jesus took upon himself the sins of the world, offering redemption and the possibility of reconciliation with God. Jesus died so that ordinary people could attain salvation and the promise of eternal life in Heaven. The doctrine of atonement is that through Jesus' sacrifice, those that repent from their sins and believe are forgiven for their sins and can achieve salvation not through their own merits but through faith in Jesus Christ. This message of hope and grace is central to Christian teachings and has been a source of comfort and inspiration for billions of believers throughout history.

Crucifixion, as a form of capital punishment during the time surrounding the life of Christ, is a topic that has garnered much interest and debate, particularly regarding its prevalence and the methods employed. To gain a deeper understanding of its reality in the centuries before and after Christ, it is crucial to examine the literature from that era. This exploration offers vital insights into how people in the Mediterranean world, contemporaneous with Christ, perceived and implemented this form of punishment.

In the context of Roman crucifixion practices, certain Latin terms were specifically used to refer to the instruments and methods involved. These terms, which would have been familiar to the executioners of Jesus, offer significant insights into the nature of crucifixion as it was understood and practiced in the Roman Empire. Understanding these terms is crucial, especially considering the nuances lost or altered in their translation from Latin to Greek and subsequently into English. A detailed examination of these terms not only clarifies the historical and technical aspects of crucifixion but also helps in resolving some of the confusions arising from translation.

Patibulum: This term refers to a wooden beam or a length of wood. Derived from a verb meaning "to stretch out," it was primarily used to describe an instrument of punishment. In the context of crucifixion, the patibulum typically referred to a beam to which a person's arms were outstretched and attached. It could also mean a beam that was affixed to an upright post. Importantly, the patibulum is distinct from the 'furca', another implement of torture that was used post-crucifixion and later abolished in the Roman Empire.

Crux (plural: Cruces): The term 'crux' could refer to a vertical post or a cross comprising two members. As defined in the Oxford Latin Dictionary, 'crux' encompasses any wooden frame used for executing criminals, including crosses and stakes for impalement. The term is always used to denote the entire structure, whether it is a single post or a construction of two parts. In a two-part cross, the vertical portion is called the 'stipes', and the crossbar is the 'patibulum'.

Crucifago: This verb translates to "attach to a cross" or "crucify." Notably, there are no instances where 'crucifago' is used to denote impalement.

Stipes (plural: Stipites): The term 'stipes' refers to a stake or the vertical beam of a cross used in crucifixion. However, it's important to note the usage of 'stipes' by Seneca the Younger, a Roman contemporary of Jesus. Seneca used 'cruces' to refer to entities separate from 'stipites'. In his writings, 'stipes' is described as a long, pointed pole used for impalement, inserted through the body from the anus and emerging out of the mouth.

This exploration into the key Latin terms associated with crucifixion highlights the complexity and variability of the practice in the Roman Empire. The distinction between these terms reveals a range of methods and instruments used in the act of crucifixion, providing a clearer, more detailed picture of what this form of capital punishment entailed. Understanding these terms in their original Latin context is essential for a historically and medically accurate comprehension of the events surrounding crucifixion, especially in the context of the execution of Jesus.


The practice of crucifixion in the Roman Empire, spanning several centuries around the time of Christ, is well-documented through various historical accounts. These instances not only illustrate the prevalence of crucifixion as a method of punishment but also provide insights into the social and political contexts in which it was employed. A detailed examination of these events offers a comprehensive view of the role of crucifixion in Roman society, including its application and the perceptions surrounding it.

217 BC: In Rome, 25 slaves were crucified in the Campus Martius, an area outside the city walls. This event underscores the notion of crucifixion as a form of expulsion from the community, symbolically removing the condemned from the civic life of the city.

201 BC: Roman General Scipio Africanus punished soldiers who had defected to the Carthaginians with crucifixion, a punishment typically reserved for slaves, highlighting the use of crucifixion as a means of enforcing military discipline and loyalty.

196 BC: The praetor Manius Acilius Glabrio responded to a slave revolt by scourging and crucifying the leaders, while returning others to their masters. This incident reflects the dual use of scourging either as a standalone punishment or as a precursor to crucifixion.

71 BC: The aftermath of Spartacus’s rebellion saw the crucifixion of 6,000 slaves along the road from Capua to Rome, marking one of the most extensive uses of crucifixion as a deterrent and a display of state power.

71 BC: The crucifixion of the Roman citizen Gavius in Sicily, as documented by Cicero, indicates that crucifixion, though rare for citizens, could be employed in exceptional circumstances, often as a result of corrupt or tyrannical local governance.

36 BC: In the army of Sextus Pompeius, fugitive slaves were crucified, exemplifying the use of crucifixion as a punishment for desertion and betrayal within military ranks.

22 BC: An example of the use of a titulus (inscription) on a slave before crucifixion is recorded, suggesting that part of the punishment was public humiliation and clarification of the crime committed.

4 BC: Following Herod the Great's death, the Syrian governor Quintilius Varus crucified 2,000 insurrectionists, showing the use of crucifixion as a response to political rebellion.

AD 9: The defeat of General Quintilius Varus by Germanic tribes led to the crucifixion of many Roman soldiers, illustrating the use of crucifixion by non-Romans as a means of humiliation and revenge against a conquering power.

28 AD: Roman tax collectors in Frisia were crucified by local tribes, highlighting the resistance to Roman authority and the appropriation of crucifixion as a method of punishment by those outside the Roman social order.

33 AD: The crucifixion of Jesus Christ and two brigands is a pivotal event in Christian history, demonstrating the use of crucifixion for crimes against the state and religious blasphemy.

38 AD: Philo of Alexandria notes the practice of removing bodies from crosses before major holidays, indicating a consideration for religious customs even within the framework of capital punishment.

64 AD: Under Emperor Nero, numerous Christians in Rome were crucified, often being used as torches at night. This horrific practice illustrates the extreme forms of persecution and the use of crucifixion as a tool for terror and suppression of religious groups.

64 AD: Saint Peter’s crucifixion upside down, as recorded by Tertullian and Eusebius, symbolizes both the cruelty of the punishment and its significance in Christian martyrdom.

These instances collectively offer a multifaceted view of crucifixion in the Roman world. They reveal the various functions of crucifixion as a tool for punishment, control, and humiliation, applied across different social strata and in diverse political and religious contexts. The medical aspects of crucifixion, including the immense physical suffering and the methods of execution, are evident in these historical accounts, underscoring the brutality of the practice. Understanding these events in their historical context is crucial for comprehending the complex role crucifixion played in the ancient world.