Pre-1355 Chronology of the Shroud
The ‘Concealment’ Phase c.30 - c.525 AD
For Christians of the first millennium, the Image of Edessa was profoundly significant because it was believed to carry a true likeness of Jesus Christ, not created by an artist but through a unique imprint directly from Jesus himself. This concept, known as 'acheiropoietic' (meaning "not made by human hands"), is emphasized in early historical accounts. Evagrius, writing in the 6th century, is the first Greek historian to mention the Image, highlighting its miraculous origin. A century later, Andrew of Crete echoed this sentiment, noting that the Image's creation involved no painting or artistic intervention. The perception of the Image of Edessa during this period was of a powerful and authentic representation of Jesus, holding immense authority and mystique as a physical manifestation of humanity's savior. Its origins were a source of great wonder and speculation. Surprisingly, many esteemed scholars, including Steven Runciman and Averil Cameron, have focused their research on the Image predominantly through written records, potentially overlooking the insights that could be gleaned from artistic depictions of Jesus from the same era. This study aims to adopt a more inclusive approach, considering these contemporary artworks to gain a fuller understanding. It also seeks to identify various artistic and historical phases through which perceptions and understandings of the Image have evolved in significant and intriguing ways.
Only lightly to be addressed here will be the difficult question of whether the Image could have had its genesis as far back as the first century amidst the dealings between Jesus and Edessa’s ailing toparch Abgar V that are described in Eusebius’ Ecclesiastical History. As a genuinely conscientious and reliable historian, Eusebius, writing circa 325 AD, claimed to have consulted in Edessa’s Record Office a collection of original Syriac documents relating to Edessa’s evangelization by Jesus’ disciple Thaddeus (in Syriac, Addai), shortly after Jesus’ crucifixion. The historicity of such an evangelization seems plausible: Jesus, his disciples, and the Edessans spoke a similar brand of Aramaic/Syriac, and there is a Syriac-speaking community today claiming direct evangelization by Addai. Nevertheless, whatever the true date of the Edessan source documents, the written exchange between Abgar and Jesus, Abgar’s healing of his disease, and Edessa’s subsequent evangelization are the high points of Eusebius’ narrative. Any awareness of the Image’s existence is absent from his account. Similarly, when around 394 AD the lady pilgrim Egeria traveled to Edessa, she made no mention of it in her detailed memoir, despite her keen observational nature, as noted by historian Runciman. The late fourth century/early fifth century Syriac Doctrine of Addai does mention an image of Jesus, a conventional portrait that Abgar’s messenger Ananias painted on his master’s behalf, which Abgar then displayed in his palace. This could be considered the earliest historical mention of the Image, suggesting that the story of what began as a conventional artwork became embellished and divinized by later writers - a stance most modern critics take. However, most scholars agree that the Doctrine of Addai seems like a late elaboration of the same early documentary sources that Eusebius consulted earlier, even adding to Jesus’ letter a blessing of Edessa and a promise of eternal protection. The Doctrine’s mention of the Image may be seen as a vague memory of some Jesus portrait that existed at Edessa, with no current whereabouts known. Corroborative, fourth and fifth-century artists’ depictions of Jesus show no indication of any authoritative likeness influencing them. Beardless depictions resembling the Graeco-Roman god Apollo are common, such as the fourth-century mosaic Christ face from Hinton St Mary, Dorset, and similar depictions on sarcophagi, caskets, and Roman catacomb wall paintings. Bearded versions from this period, like the late 4th-century wall painting in Rome’s catacombs of Commodilla, are rare and notably vague. St. Augustine of Hippo described the Christ portraiture of his time as ‘innumerable in concept and design,’ confirming the absence of any strong guideline for Jesus’ human appearance. This continued into the early sixth century, as seen in beardless depictions at the Basilica of S. Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna.
Here, we will assemble historical evidence about the Shroud's origins and early history, before its first known exhibition in Lirey, France in 1355. The period following this initial public display is relatively well-documented, so we limit our discussion to significant milestones. Our objective is to establish a foundational historical context by highlighting crucial events and references related to the Shroud, tracing its journey from the biblical descriptions of Jesus' burial garments to its presence in Constantinople in 1203, and culminating in its debut in European public view in 1355. This effort aims to provide a comprehensive historical baseline for understanding the Shroud's provenance and early significance.
48BC - 33AD
On August 9th, 48 BC, a significant event in the Roman Civil War unfolded at Pharsalus in central Greece, where Julius Caesar and his legions triumphed over the larger forces led by Pompey the Great, aligned with the Roman Senate. Following his defeat, Pompey fled with remnants of his army to Egypt, only to be assassinated upon his arrival. Caesar, chasing Pompey, arrived in Alexandria to find himself amid Egypt's civil conflict, becoming a target for local factions. Facing a large Egyptian military force aiming to eliminate him, Caesar's situation seemed dire. At this critical juncture, Antipater the Idumaen, a lesser-known leader from near Judea, intervened significantly. Josephus documented Antipater's arrival with 3,000 armed Jewish men, alongside support from Arabs and Syrians, bolstering Caesar's position. This support not only facilitated Caesar's survival but also contributed to the eventual shift from the Roman Republic to Caesar's autocratic rule. Caesar, in gratitude, appointed Antipater as procurator of Judea, laying the foundations for the Herodian Dynasty, which would have profound implications for early Christian history. Antipater's son, Herod the Great, and his descendants, including Herod Agrippa and Herod Antipas, played pivotal roles in the New Testament narratives, from the massacre of Bethlehem's infants to the crucifixion of Jesus and the persecution of early Christians. Despite the Herodians' adversarial actions towards Christianity, Antipater's aid to Caesar indirectly fostered the religion's growth. Caesar's subsequent decrees granted religious freedoms to Jews throughout the Roman Empire, inadvertently creating conducive environments for the spread of Christianity. These Jewish communities and their synagogues, along with their Gentile neighbors, became fertile ground for the missionary efforts of early Christian figures like Peter and Paul, significantly aiding in the propagation of the Christian faith.
33 AD
The widely accepted date for Jesus of Nazareth's crucifixion and death in Jerusalem is Friday, April 3, 33 AD. According to all Canonical Gospels, Jesus's body was enshrouded in a linen cloth and laid to rest in a tomb hewn from rock. Specifically, the Gospel of Matthew from the Synoptic Gospels describes the event as follows:
Matthew 27:57-60: 57 As evening approached, there came a rich man from Arimathea, named Joseph, who had himself become a disciple of Jesus. 58 Going to Pilate, he asked for Jesus’ body, and Pilate ordered that it be given to him. 59 Joseph took the body, wrapped it in a clean linen cloth, 60 and placed it in his own new tomb that he had cut out of the rock. He rolled a big stone in front of the entrance to the tomb and went away.
John 20:1-5 20 Early on the first day of the week, while it was still dark, Mary Magdalene went to the tomb and saw that the stone had been removed from the entrance. 2 So she came running to Simon Peter and the other disciple, the one Jesus loved, and said, “They have taken the Lord out of the tomb, and we don’t know where they have put him!” 3 So Peter and the other disciple started for the tomb. 4 Both were running, but the other disciple outran Peter and reached the tomb first. 5 He bent over and looked in at the strips of linen lying there but did not go in.
33 – 68
In 34 AD, following the stoning of Stephen, the first Christian martyr, in Jerusalem, a wave of persecution swept through the early Christian community. This led to many followers of Jesus seeking refuge beyond the city, spreading their message to Jewish communities in Phoenicia, Cyprus, and particularly in Antioch. It's believed that Barnabas was dispatched to Antioch, possibly on the instruction of Peter. At that time, Antioch was a major urban center of the Roman Empire, ranked only behind Rome and Alexandria in Egypt in terms of importance. Around 40 AD, under the guidance of Barnabas and later Paul, Christian missionaries in Antioch began to increasingly direct their evangelistic efforts towards non-Jewish populations. This marked the beginning of Antioch's pivotal role as a hub for Christian missionary activity. Following the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, Antioch emerged as the preeminent center of Christianity, boasting the largest Christian community in the world at that time. It was in Antioch that the term "Christian" was first coined, earning the city the title "Cradle of Christianity." Additionally, St. Luke, a native of Antioch, composed both the Gospel according to Luke and the Acts of the Apostles within this vibrant city.
Peter's missionary endeavors are less clearly defined than Paul's well-documented journeys. While we don't have precise dates and routes for Peter's travels, insights can be gleaned from the First Epistle of Peter. This letter, possibly penned by Peter from Rome around 60-63 AD or by a follower between 70-90 AD, is a theological gem of the New Testament, offering deep insights into Christology, the nature of the Church, and Christian conduct. The epistle's greeting hints at Peter's missionary reach, addressing believers scattered across Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia. This suggests Peter's involvement in these regions, whether through direct visits or his influence. Further historical texts, like the fifth or sixth-century Doctrine of the Apostles, record Peter's foundational role in establishing the church in areas including Antioch, Syria, Cilicia, and Galatia, leading up to his time in Rome. Peter's timeline, traditionally accepted, includes:
Around 35 AD, Peter is believed to have played a key role in founding the church in Antioch, later returning to Jerusalem by around 40 AD, and being present there in 42 AD. In 42 AD, Peter faced threats from Herod Agrippa, leading to his miraculous escape from imprisonment. Despite Acts of the Apostles mentioning Peter's brief stay in Caesarea, many scholars speculate his journey led him to Rome, a significant center for the Jewish diaspora and fertile ground for spreading the Gospel. Peter is noted to have returned to Jerusalem around 44 AD for the Jerusalem Council, which took place circa 49-50 AD. This council was pivotal in deciding that Gentile converts need not fully adhere to Jewish customs, including circumcision. Following the council, tradition places Peter back in Antioch until around 54-55 AD, after which he is said to have embarked on a second journey to Rome. Peter's final years were spent evangelizing in Rome and Italy, culminating in his martyrdom under Emperor Nero, approximately between 64-68 AD. This timeline, while not exhaustive, sketches a broad outline of Peter's contributions to the early Christian mission, reflecting his pivotal role alongside Paul in the spread of Christianity.
50
Death of Edessa's King Abgar V. According to the early church historian Eusebius (c. 260-340), King Abgar V (BC 4–AD 50) of Edessa had written to Jesus asking Him to come and heal him and Jesus had replied to Abgar by letter promising that after His resurrection He would send one of His disciples to Edessa to heal Abgar and preach the Gospel. According to Eusebius, Thaddeus, one of the Seventy, did go to Edessa, healed Abgar V from Thaddeus, and commenced Christianity there. While historian J.B. Segal (1912–2003), considered that this account "may well have a substratum of fact," he regarded the part of it about the exchange of letters between Abgar V and Jesus, which Eusebius had personally read in Edessa's archives, was a "pious fraud," which unknown to Eusebius had been inserted into Edessa's archives in the time of Abgar VIII (177 to 212), who was the first Christian king of Edessa. But as will be seen, Eusebius' account says nothing about Abgar V being healed by an image of Jesus on a cloth, which later versions of the Abgar V story do say. The pilgrim Spanish nun Egeria in c.384 recorded that she had seen the text of Jesus' letter to Abgar V affixed to Edessa' city gate.
60
According to the 945 "Official History of the Image of Edessa", King Ma'nu VI reverted to paganism and persecuted Edessa's Christians. To ensure the safety of "the likeness of our Lord Jesus Christ not made by hand" which had been fastened to a board and embellished with gold, i.e. the Mandylion (the Shroud "four-doubled" = tetradiplon), was supposedly bricked up above the public gate of Edessa, where it had previously laid, and then was completely forgotten for almost five centuries until its discovery after another major flood in 525. However, this story is most implausible (did Ma'nu VI, or none of his officials, not notice, nor suspect, that the Mandylion they were seeking to destroy, was where it had previously been but only behind fresh brickwork?), and is more likely a "pious fraud" to give the Mandylion/Shroud, which is known in Edessa only from 544, a false back-history to the time of Jesus.
68 - 70
Between 68 and 70 AD, amidst the turmoil and onset of hostilities in Jerusalem involving Jewish zealots and Roman authorities, key Christian artifacts, including an "image of our Holy Lord and Savior," were transported out of the city for safety. This period followed the martyrdom of James in 62 AD and was marked by escalating tensions that eventually led to open conflict in 66 AD. Recognizing the imminent danger, members of the Jerusalem Church sought refuge, many heading towards Antioch and other safe havens in Syria. This exodus, including the safeguarding of sacred objects, is documented in a sermon attributed to Saint Athanasius, the 4th-century Bishop of Alexandria. Delivered during the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, Athanasius' sermon recounts the careful removal of a significant Christian relic, described as a full-length "image of our Lord and Savior," from Jerusalem to Syria around 68 AD, as part of the broader effort to protect the Christian community and its heritage from the perils of the Jewish-Roman conflict.
“But two years before Titus and Vespasian sacked the city, the faithful and disciples of Christ were warned by the Holy Spirit to depart from the city and go to the kingdom of King Agrippa II, because at that time Agrippa II was a Roman ally. Leaving the city, they went to his regions and carried everything relating to our faith. At that time even the icon with certain other ecclesiastical objects were moved and they today still remain in Syria. I possess this information as handed down to me from my migrating parents and by hereditary right. It is plain and certain why the icon of our Holy Lord and Savior came from Judaea to Syria." 1
70
In the year 70 A.D., Titus, who would later become Emperor, orchestrated the conclusive Roman assault on Jerusalem. This attack resulted in the extensive devastation of the city, including the demolition of the Jewish Second Temple. The primary targets of the Siege of Jerusalem were the Jewish zealots who had taken control of significant sections of the city, but the conflict inevitably affected any Christians who were still present. For those Christian refugees escaping the turmoil in Jerusalem, Antioch emerged as a likely haven.
2nd century (101-200)
150
Several second-century Christian writings record that the Shroud had been saved from Jesus' tomb: the Gospel of the Hebrews, the Acts of Pilate / Acts of Nicodemus, the Gospel of Peter and the Gospel of Gamaliel. This shows that second-century writers knew the Shroud existed in their day. They disagree about who saved it from the tomb, but they agree that it had been saved.
Here are the relevant quotes from the second-century Christian writings that mention the Shroud:
The Gospel of the Hebrews: "And when the Lord had given the linen cloth unto the servant of the priest, he went unto James and said unto him: 'Take, for the Lord hath risen from the dead and appeared unto Simon.'" (as quoted by Jerome in his Commentary on Matthew)
The Acts of Pilate / Acts of Nicodemus: "The Jews, therefore, said to Nicodemus: 'Thou art his disciple, and hast brought his funeral things hither, that we may not have authority over him.' Nicodemus saith to them: 'The funeral things which I brought hither, I did not bring as his disciple, but to bury him according to the usage of my fathers. And because he had been the benefactor of my life, how should I not have brought them?'" (as translated by M.R. James in The Apocryphal New Testament)
The Gospel of Peter: "But I and my companions were grieved, and being wounded in mind, we hid ourselves: for we were sought after by them as malefactors, and as wishing to set fire to the temple. And in the night in which the Lord's day dawned, when my companions and I were sleeping, there came a great sound from heaven, and the heavens were opened, and a man descended to us, and came and rolled away the stone from the door of the sepulchre, and sat upon it. And he shone with a great light, and he took the linen cloth which was put round the Saviour's head, and the cloth for his body, and laid them in a place by themselves." (as translated by M.R. James in The Apocryphal New Testament)
The Gospel of Gamaliel: "He went in, therefore, and saw the linen cloths lying; but the napkin that had been on his head was not lying with the linen cloths, but was rolled up in a place by itself. Then the other disciple also entered, who had come first to the tomb, and he saw, and believed. For as yet they did not know the scripture, that he must rise from the dead." (as quoted by Jerome in his Commentary on Matthew)
Note that the reference to the Shroud is indirect in some of these texts (e.g. the Gospel of Gamaliel), but scholars believe that the "napkin" or "cloth for his body" mentioned in these texts is likely a reference to the Shroud.
177
Accession of Edessa's king Abgar VIII, the Great. Abgar VIII (r. 177-212), also counted as Abgar IX. His full name was Lucius Aelius Septimius Megas Abgarus. He was a ruler of Osroene, a Syriac-speaking kingdom in Upper Mesopotamia, whose capital city was Edessa. Abgar VIII was Edessa's (and presumably the world's) first Christian king, as is evident from some of his coins which were the first to feature a Christian symbol: a prominent Christian cross on his crown (see below).
180
Abgar VIII has inserted into Edessa's archives fictitious correspondence between Abgar V and Jesus. This "pious fraud" became the basis of the "Legend of Abgar" which was added to and modified over subsequent centuries as more information about the Shroud became known. But the Abgar-Jesus letters were more likely a verbal request by Abgar and a reply by Jesus which were later transcribed into writing, with embellishments.
Got Questions: The consensus of Bible scholars is that the Letter of King Abgar to Jesus is fraudulent. The document was probably written in the third century AD and then placed where Eusebius would eventually find it. This is not to say that some sort of letter never existed. The question concerns the authorship and date of the letter. It is thought that the basis for the legend surrounding the letter is the Syrian king Abgar IX, who converted to Christianity in the late second century.
Although a fake, the Abgar Letter was believed to be real by many in the third-century church. The letter even found its way into liturgical use. Today, King Abgar is considered a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church (with feasts in his honor on May 11 and October 28) and in the Syriac Orthodox Church (with a feast on August 1). Biblical Christianity is defined by its authority: the sixty-six-book canon. It has no room for relics, images, or supposed letters from Jesus. The spurious Letter of King Abgar to Jesus is an argument for shunning any addendums, supplements, or additions to Scripture. 2
183
In the first century, the city of Edessa, now known as Urfa and located in southeast Turkey, served as a buffer kingdom between the Parthians in the east and the Romans in the west. Its population was diverse, including Syriac, Greek, Armenian, and Arabic speakers, with a significant Jewish community. By the 6th century, Edessa and the surrounding Assyrian region were home to a thriving Christian population. Most historians agree that Christianity began to gain influence in Edessa in the late 2nd century under the leadership of Abgar VIII, who was known as "The Great." A church sanctuary dating back to 201 AD has been discovered in the city (Segal 1970). However, when the Edessan Christians wrote their history in the 3rd century, they claimed that the Gospel had arrived in the city during the 1st century, brought by a disciple of Jesus named Addai and delivered to King Abgar V, a contemporary of Christ. Eusebius, in his Ecclesiastical History, included a brief version of this story from the late 3rd century, which referenced a famous letter from Jesus that was said to be kept in the archives of Edessa (Eusebius 1991: 43-47). During the tolerant rule of Roman Emperor Commodus (180-192), Abgar VIII requested Pope Eleutherus (175-189) to dispatch missionaries to Edessa. Under Abgar VIII's leadership, Edessa became the first Christian city in the world, as attested by a stone Christian cross located above a lion's head, once a fountain and now situated in modern-day Sanliurfa, the former Edessa. Despite the almost complete obliteration of Edessa's Christian past following the Muslim conquest in 1144, this cross has survived as a testament to the city's Christian roots. It is worth noting that the lion was the emblem of the Abgar dynasty, which lost its grip over Edessa after Abgar VIII's death in 212.
190
Around 190 AD, during the reign of Emperor Commodus, who was known for his indulgence in personal pleasures and his peaceful stance towards Christianity, King Abgar VIII, also known as Abgar the Great, ascended to the throne of the Mesopotamian kingdom of Oshroene, with its capital at Edessa, located roughly 145 miles northeast of Antioch. Abgar's reign, lasting until 212, witnessed significant Christian influences, including the construction of a Christian church in Edessa, the incorporation of Christian symbols on royal coins, and the convening of a Christian synod within his domain. The story of Abgar's conversion is documented in historical texts such as the Liber Pontificalis and the writings of the Venerable Bede. These accounts tell of a correspondence between "British King Lucius" and Pope Eleutherius, who was Pope from around 174 to 189, in which Lucius requested baptism and conversion to Christianity. However, this period in Britain was under Roman control, and there was no reigning king. Biblical scholar Adolph Harnack proposed that this mention of "Britannio Rege Lucio" was actually a reference to "Britio Edessenorum," or the citadel of Edessa, and King Lucius Ælius Septimius Megas Abgarus VIII, meaning King Abgar the Great of Edessa. This suggests that it was King Abgar who invited a papal mission to Edessa to introduce Christianity, an event that must have occurred before the death of Emperor Commodus in late 192, as his successor, Septimius Severus, was known for his opposition to Christianity.
The only recorded ecclesiastical mission from Rome to Mesopotamia in the late second century was undertaken by Avircius Marcellus, the Bishop of Hieropolis in Phrygia. While some historical accounts suggest that Avircius may have passed away around 167, these claims lack substantiation and are contradicted by references to Avircius' writings on Montanism, a heretical movement of the second century, which are believed to date back to around 193. Scholars such as William Ramsey, J. Tixeront, and Johannes Quasten, after a thorough analysis of historical texts, argue that Avircius likely lived until the end of the second century or possibly into the early years of the third century. This later timeline is supported by the existence of the so-called Inscription of Abercius, a significant monumental text from 192, which is attributed to Avircius. The Inscription of Abercius, a monument that encapsulates a figurative summary of the author's journeys, is believed to have been composed in a cryptic and allegorical manner. This style was likely employed to shield its Christian essence from those not privy to its meanings, a practice known as the Discipline of the Secret. Esteemed theologian Johannes Quasten has noted this inscription's mystical and symbolic nature. The text describes a summons to Rome by the pope to visit a "Queen Golden-robed and Golden-sandaled", speculated by some to be Shalmath, the wife of King Abgar VIII, who may have delivered her husband's request for baptism to Rome. The narrative continues, detailing the author's travels to Mesopotamia, including visits to all the cities of Syria, among them Antioch and Edessa, the latter being the preeminent city in eastern Syria at the time. The inscription also mentions a companion named "Paul," likely referring to the cleric "Palut," who is thought to have become the first bishop of Edessa. A pivotal aspect of the inscription is the mention of a "fish of exceeding great size" accompanied by "wine of great virtue" mixed with "bread." This imagery is significant given the early Christian use of the fish symbol (ΙΧΘΥΣ in Greek, an acronym for "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior") to denote Christ and identify Christian gathering spots and allies covertly. The inscription's reference to a "fish" coupled with "bread" and "wine" is interpreted as a metaphorical representation of Jesus, possibly suggesting the author carried a significant relic or image of Jesus, embodying both his physical representation ("bread") and his sacrifice ("wine").
It has been hypothesized that the author of the Inscription of Abercius might have transported the Shroud of Turin from Antioch to Edessa as part of the effort to support King Abgar VIII's conversion to Christianity, with the relic later being returned to Antioch. 3
Third century (201 - 300)
201
A major flood of its river devastates Edessa, thousands die, and the "church of the Christians" is damaged. This is the first mention anywhere of a Christian church building and is further evidence that Edessa had become a Christian city.
202
As a reward for assisting Rome in its war with Parthia, Abgar VIII was invited to Rome in 202, which he visited after 204.
205
Following the flood of 201, in 205 Abgar VIII built on higher ground within the walls of the old Edessa, a new walled Citadel, called "Birtha" in Syriac.
220
The "Hymn of the Pearl," a notable poem from the early third century, adds fascinating support to the theory that the Shroud played a role in King Abgar the Great's conversion to Christianity in Edessa. Composed no later than 224, this hymn employs a secretive and mystical style, mirroring the approach seen in the Inscription of Abercius. Its endorsement of certain non-orthodox beliefs points to Bardaisan, an Edessan Gnostic Christian philosopher and contemporary of Abgar, as its likely author. Given Bardaisan's close ties to the royal court, he would have had the opportunity to see the Shroud, assuming it was brought to Edessa by Avircius Marcellus. The poem's narrative, featuring a prince on a quest to retrieve a pearl from a serpent, symbolizes Jesus Christ's mission to redeem humanity from Satan. The prince's robe, initially without an image, comes to bear his likeness upon the successful completion of his quest, serving as a metaphor for the Shroud. 4
On a sudden, as I faced it,
The garment seemed to me like a mirror of myself.
I saw it all in my whole self,
Moreover, I faced my whole self in it,
For we were two in distinction
And yet again one in one likeness.
And the image of the King of kings
Was depicted in full all over it . . .
The prince's assertion that the robe epitomizes his "entire self" is in harmony with the Abercius Inscription, which speaks of a remarkably large fish. The hymn's portrayal of the robe's image as the "King of Kings" echoes the depiction of Jesus in the Book of Revelation, where he is named the King of Kings, stating that "The Lamb will overcome them for he is Lord of lords and King of Kings, and those with him are the called, chosen, and faithful." Indeed, there are numerous suggestions from Edessa that the Shroud was in the city during King Abgar's reign, which might have played a role in his conversion. 5
When observing a photograph of the Shroud, one notices two distinct full-length depictions of a man, with one image facing forward and the other facing backward. These are commonly referred to in contemporary language as the front-side and back-side images, or the ventral and dorsal images. Remarkably, they appear as if reflected in a mirror, maintaining full scale and appearing to stand perpendicular to the surface of the Shroud. The phrase "as though divided, yet one likeness" captures the essence of these two individual images that converge at the crown of the head.
190 - 306
Between 190 and 306, with the Shroud likely in Antioch, the Roman Empire renewed its persecutions of Christianity, which lasted for over a century. This period saw some of the most severe persecutions under emperors such as Septimius Severus, Maximinus the Thracian, Decius, Valerian, and notably Diocletian. Diocletian's reign marked the climax of these persecutions, culminating in a 303 decree to destroy all church buildings and burn all Christian texts. Christians faced systematic denial of civil rights and exclusion from government roles. During this era, the Bishop of Antioch was imprisoned and died in custody. Despite Emperor Constantine's control of the Western Empire from 306, his co-emperor Galerius continued to persecute Christians in Antioch. Throughout these ordeals, Christian leaders diligently maintained the Discipline of the Secret, safeguarding the secrecy of any surviving burial linens of Christ. The presence of early iconoclasts, who viewed images of God or Christ as sacrilegious, posed an additional threat to any relics with images. Around 260, Paul of Samosata, the Bishop of Antioch, began promoting a non-Trinitarian concept of God, leading to his removal from church duties. Following him, Lucian of Antioch, influenced by the teachings of Arius's student, argued against the eternal existence of Jesus as the Son of the Father. This teaching, known as Arianism, quickly gained traction among the Christian community in Antioch.
Fourth century (301 - 400)
During the period from 306 to 361 AD, known as the Constantine Era, Constantine the Great ruled as Roman Emperor. His reign, starting in 306 and concluding in 337, marked a significant turning point in Roman history, as Constantine was the first emperor to embrace Christianity. In a landmark move in 313, he promulgated the Edict of Milan, which legalized Christianity across the Roman Empire and effectively ceased the state-sponsored persecution of Christians. Constantine's strategic vision extended to the empire's geography; in 324, he shifted the imperial capital from Rome to Byzantium, an eastern city he renamed Constantinople. This city would later become the heart of the Byzantine Empire, a successor to the Roman Empire's eastern territories, which persisted for over a millennium until the Ottoman Empire captured it on May 29, 1453. The city underwent another transformation in 1930 when a Turkish law officially changed its name from Constantinople to Istanbul.
324
In 324, Constantine took a pivotal role in the organization of a regional synod consisting of Orthodox Bishops, which resulted in the election of a new Bishop for Antioch and the condemnation of Arius. Around the same time, he also commanded the construction of a church in Jerusalem, intended to replace a pagan temple that stood over the site believed to be Jesus' tomb. This church would later be recognized as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. During this period, Constantine's mother, Helen, who had also converted to Christianity, visited Jerusalem. Her mission was to find relics associated with the Passion of Christ. Among her discoveries were three nails believed to be from the Crucifixion and fragments purported to be from the "true cross," found in a Christian shrine close to the Holy Tomb. Helen sent two of these nails and a piece of the cross to Constantine. One nail was repurposed into his battle helmet, another into a bridle for his horse, and the cross fragment was integrated into a statue of Constantine himself. Such actions by the imperial family highlighted the significance of relics within the empire and served as a clear message to local church custodians about the value of such sacred items, further emphasizing the Discipline of the Secret. This period also saw the influence of iconoclasm, a belief originating from Judaism that cautioned against the use of religious images for fear of idolatry or improper worship. Even in Constantine's time, before the formal iconoclastic controversies of later centuries, this doctrine found some support within the Christian community, particularly in the Eastern Church, thereby reinforcing the cautious approach to the veneration and display of image-bearing Christian relics.
325
Constantine initiated the First Council of Nicaea to resolve the intensifying dispute over Arianism. The core of the controversy was theological: Orthodox Christians believed that the Son was of the same essence (consubstantial) and co-eternal with the Father, while Arians argued that Christ, though divine, was not co-eternal with the Father and had a beginning. The council, while not immediately reconciling these differences, laid the groundwork for what would become the Nicene Creed. This creed, finalized at the Council of Constantinople in 381, cemented the Orthodox understanding of Christ's nature. In Antioch, the council's decisions did little to heal the rift. Following Nicaea, Arius was exiled by the Orthodox leaders of Antioch, only for the Arian majority to later expel the Orthodox Bishop in 330. The conflict between Arian and Orthodox Christians escalated, engulfing the entire city in civil unrest. The situation became so volatile that Constantine had to send military forces to Antioch to quell the disturbances and restore peace. 6
330
Athanasius, the Bishop of Alexandria from 328 to 373, during the reign of Constantine the Great (c.272–337), who was the Roman Emperor from 306 to 337, confirmed the existence of a revered Christ-icon. He traced its origins back to Jerusalem in the year 68 and noted that it was located in Syria at the time—this was before the region of Edessa was considered part of Syria. In his seminal work "On the Incarnation," Athanasius referred to this icon as the image of Christ "not made by human hands," signifying its divine or miraculous origin. He highlighted that this icon had been transmitted through the ages from the time of the apostles. Furthermore, Athanasius connected the icon's history to King Abgar of Edessa, mentioning that it was kept in a church within Hierapolis, a city in Syria, thereby attesting to its venerable and storied past.
337
In 337, Constantine, the inaugural Christian Emperor of Rome, officially prohibited crucifixion across the Roman Empire, honoring Jesus Christ, the most renowned individual to have suffered this fate. This ban persisted in the remnants of the empire, extending through Europe. Given the widespread familiarity with crucifixion during the Roman period and its particularly gruesome nature, contemporary accounts, including the Bible and Roman-era writings, seldom provided explicit details of the practice. This omission likely stemmed from the general understanding of crucifixion's horrors and a desire to avoid discussing such a detestable subject. Consequently, a forger from medieval Europe, living approximately a millennium later, would lack the necessary knowledge of Roman crucifixion practices to accurately replicate such details on an artifact like the Shroud, suggesting that the Shroud's depiction of crucifixion bears an authenticity that transcends the knowledge of a later era.
338
St. Nino, who lived approximately between 296 and 340, spent her early years in Jerusalem starting around the year 308. By 338, she recorded in her memoirs an account she had received about the linen strips (referred to as "othonia" in Luke 24:12 and John 11:44). According to this account, these linens were initially taken by the wife of Pontius Pilate and transported to Pontus. However, they were later returned to Jerusalem. Regarding the "soudarion" mentioned in John 20:7, St. Nino had learned that it was taken by Peter, though its whereabouts at that time remained unknown.
337 - 361
Following the death of Constantine in 337, his middle son, Constantius, took over the Eastern Roman Empire and aligned himself with Arian Christianity. By 350, after the demise of his brothers, Constantius emerged as the sole ruler of the entire empire. In a significant shift in 357, Arians gained control of Antioch's previously Orthodox Golden Basilica, turning the city into a focal point for Arianism. During this era, references to an image-bearing icon have been found in texts. Theodore of Mopsuestia, hailing from Antioch, mentioned in his Catechesis how deacons would lay linens on the altar, symbolizing the burial cloths of Jesus, to evoke the image of Him in the sepulchre, as if He were lying there after His crucifixion. Furthermore, a sermon attributed to Athanasius, the Bishop of Alexandria during approximately the same period, recounted a tradition. It suggested that a full-body image of Jesus, created on boards, was transported from Jerusalem to Syria around 68 AD. This sermon also described how this image was subjected to acts mirroring the crucifixion: nails driven through the hands and feet, the head struck with a reed, and the side pierced, resulting in the outflow of blood and water. These details strikingly resemble the wounds depicted on the Shroud of Turin. Constantius's reign ended with his death in 361, after which his cousin Julian, known as "the Apostate" due to his rejection of Christianity in favor of paganism, ascended to power.
362
In 362, during Emperor Julian's visit to Antioch on October 22, the Temple of Apollo was struck by a fire that damaged its roof and a statue of Apollo. Julian, without evidence, accused Christians of the act and ordered the closure of the Great Cathedral, along with the seizure of its religious treasures. Before the confiscation could take place, an Arian presbyter named Theodorus concealed the treasures. Historian Gustavus Eisen notes that Theodorus was executed for refusing to disclose the location of the hidden treasures, maintaining silence on a crucial secret believed to involve these treasures. The hidden items are thought to have included the Shroud, as indicated by later developments. Firstly, during the rebuilding of Antioch between 528 and 538, an "awe-inspiring image of Christ, held in high veneration" was discovered near the city's Gate of the Cherubim. Secondly, the 945 Narratio de Imagine Edessena recounts that the Image of Edessa, once brought to Constantinople, had been concealed within a niche above a city gate, only to be discovered centuries later. Scholar Markwardt posits that this account might conflate incidents from Antioch and Edessa, suggesting that the Shroud was hidden in 362 in Antioch, in a niche above the Gate of the Cherubim. Additionally, forensic evidence related to the Shroud's history during this period emerged in 2002 when researchers Aldo Guerreschi and Michele Salcito presented findings that the Shroud bears a pattern of water stains. These stains suggest that the Shroud had been folded and stored in an ancient jar for an extended period, further supporting the theory of its concealment during Julian's reign.
363 -410
After the death of Julian "The Apostate" in 363, the Roman Empire saw the return of an Orthodox Christian emperor to the throne. By 380, Emperor Theodosius I declared Orthodox Christianity as the state religion, denounced Arianism as heretical, and expelled Arians from Antioch. This move also included the restoration of the Golden Basilica to the Orthodox Melkites. The consolidation of Orthodox doctrine was furthered by the Council of Constantinople in 381, which resulted in the final version of the Nicene Creed. Despite this, debates over the nature of the Trinity persisted throughout the 4th century, leading to enduring divisions within Christianity. The 5th century introduced a new theological debate regarding the dual nature of Christ's divinity and humanity, causing significant discord, especially in the Eastern Church and cities like Antioch. This dispute led to the fragmentation of the Antioch Christian community into four sects, each with its own bishop. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 attempted to address this controversy by affirming that Christ exists in two distinct natures, but this resolution resulted in a deep and lasting schism. Many in the Eastern Church felt the Council's decision was too simplistic and ignored nuanced theological points, attributing the division to the influence of the Western Latin Church. Pope Leo, the Roman Pontiff, who had not attended the council, had advocated for a more deliberative process to avoid schism, but his concerns were not heeded. The aftermath of Chalcedon saw major schisms, with Alexandria and most of the Christian communities in Syria, including Antioch, breaking away. This left three main Christian groups: the Nestorians, the Monophysites who rejected the Chalcedonian doctrine, and the Orthodox Melkites who accepted it. These divisions were not solely theological but also had political dimensions, especially with the Melkites' support for the Constantinopolitan government. About twenty years post-Chalcedon, the Monophysites took control of the Antioch church, leading to a break in communion with both Rome and Constantinople, a division that lasted through the patriarchy of Ephraemius (around 528-545). During this tumultuous period, the only allusions to an image of Christ akin to the Shroud come from Theodosian era (370-410) art, depicting Christ with features reminiscent of the Shroud: a long, narrow face, hair parted in the middle, and a medium-length beard.
The ‘Concealment’ Phase c.30 - c.525 AD
For Christians of the first millennium, the Image of Edessa was profoundly significant because it was believed to carry a true likeness of Jesus Christ, not created by an artist but through a unique imprint directly from Jesus himself. This concept, known as 'acheiropoietic' (meaning "not made by human hands"), is emphasized in early historical accounts. Evagrius, writing in the 6th century, is the first Greek historian to mention the Image, highlighting its miraculous origin. A century later, Andrew of Crete echoed this sentiment, noting that the Image's creation involved no painting or artistic intervention. The perception of the Image of Edessa during this period was of a powerful and authentic representation of Jesus, holding immense authority and mystique as a physical manifestation of humanity's savior. Its origins were a source of great wonder and speculation. Surprisingly, many esteemed scholars, including Steven Runciman and Averil Cameron, have focused their research on the Image predominantly through written records, potentially overlooking the insights that could be gleaned from artistic depictions of Jesus from the same era. This study aims to adopt a more inclusive approach, considering these contemporary artworks to gain a fuller understanding. It also seeks to identify various artistic and historical phases through which perceptions and understandings of the Image have evolved in significant and intriguing ways.
Only lightly to be addressed here will be the difficult question of whether the Image could have had its genesis as far back as the first century amidst the dealings between Jesus and Edessa’s ailing toparch Abgar V that are described in Eusebius’ Ecclesiastical History. As a genuinely conscientious and reliable historian, Eusebius, writing circa 325 AD, claimed to have consulted in Edessa’s Record Office a collection of original Syriac documents relating to Edessa’s evangelization by Jesus’ disciple Thaddeus (in Syriac, Addai), shortly after Jesus’ crucifixion. The historicity of such an evangelization seems plausible: Jesus, his disciples, and the Edessans spoke a similar brand of Aramaic/Syriac, and there is a Syriac-speaking community today claiming direct evangelization by Addai. Nevertheless, whatever the true date of the Edessan source documents, the written exchange between Abgar and Jesus, Abgar’s healing of his disease, and Edessa’s subsequent evangelization are the high points of Eusebius’ narrative. Any awareness of the Image’s existence is absent from his account. Similarly, when around 394 AD the lady pilgrim Egeria traveled to Edessa, she made no mention of it in her detailed memoir, despite her keen observational nature, as noted by historian Runciman. The late fourth century/early fifth century Syriac Doctrine of Addai does mention an image of Jesus, a conventional portrait that Abgar’s messenger Ananias painted on his master’s behalf, which Abgar then displayed in his palace. This could be considered the earliest historical mention of the Image, suggesting that the story of what began as a conventional artwork became embellished and divinized by later writers - a stance most modern critics take. However, most scholars agree that the Doctrine of Addai seems like a late elaboration of the same early documentary sources that Eusebius consulted earlier, even adding to Jesus’ letter a blessing of Edessa and a promise of eternal protection. The Doctrine’s mention of the Image may be seen as a vague memory of some Jesus portrait that existed at Edessa, with no current whereabouts known. Corroborative, fourth and fifth-century artists’ depictions of Jesus show no indication of any authoritative likeness influencing them. Beardless depictions resembling the Graeco-Roman god Apollo are common, such as the fourth-century mosaic Christ face from Hinton St Mary, Dorset, and similar depictions on sarcophagi, caskets, and Roman catacomb wall paintings. Bearded versions from this period, like the late 4th-century wall painting in Rome’s catacombs of Commodilla, are rare and notably vague. St. Augustine of Hippo described the Christ portraiture of his time as ‘innumerable in concept and design,’ confirming the absence of any strong guideline for Jesus’ human appearance. This continued into the early sixth century, as seen in beardless depictions at the Basilica of S. Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna.
Here, we will assemble historical evidence about the Shroud's origins and early history, before its first known exhibition in Lirey, France in 1355. The period following this initial public display is relatively well-documented, so we limit our discussion to significant milestones. Our objective is to establish a foundational historical context by highlighting crucial events and references related to the Shroud, tracing its journey from the biblical descriptions of Jesus' burial garments to its presence in Constantinople in 1203, and culminating in its debut in European public view in 1355. This effort aims to provide a comprehensive historical baseline for understanding the Shroud's provenance and early significance.
48BC - 33AD
On August 9th, 48 BC, a significant event in the Roman Civil War unfolded at Pharsalus in central Greece, where Julius Caesar and his legions triumphed over the larger forces led by Pompey the Great, aligned with the Roman Senate. Following his defeat, Pompey fled with remnants of his army to Egypt, only to be assassinated upon his arrival. Caesar, chasing Pompey, arrived in Alexandria to find himself amid Egypt's civil conflict, becoming a target for local factions. Facing a large Egyptian military force aiming to eliminate him, Caesar's situation seemed dire. At this critical juncture, Antipater the Idumaen, a lesser-known leader from near Judea, intervened significantly. Josephus documented Antipater's arrival with 3,000 armed Jewish men, alongside support from Arabs and Syrians, bolstering Caesar's position. This support not only facilitated Caesar's survival but also contributed to the eventual shift from the Roman Republic to Caesar's autocratic rule. Caesar, in gratitude, appointed Antipater as procurator of Judea, laying the foundations for the Herodian Dynasty, which would have profound implications for early Christian history. Antipater's son, Herod the Great, and his descendants, including Herod Agrippa and Herod Antipas, played pivotal roles in the New Testament narratives, from the massacre of Bethlehem's infants to the crucifixion of Jesus and the persecution of early Christians. Despite the Herodians' adversarial actions towards Christianity, Antipater's aid to Caesar indirectly fostered the religion's growth. Caesar's subsequent decrees granted religious freedoms to Jews throughout the Roman Empire, inadvertently creating conducive environments for the spread of Christianity. These Jewish communities and their synagogues, along with their Gentile neighbors, became fertile ground for the missionary efforts of early Christian figures like Peter and Paul, significantly aiding in the propagation of the Christian faith.
33 AD
The widely accepted date for Jesus of Nazareth's crucifixion and death in Jerusalem is Friday, April 3, 33 AD. According to all Canonical Gospels, Jesus's body was enshrouded in a linen cloth and laid to rest in a tomb hewn from rock. Specifically, the Gospel of Matthew from the Synoptic Gospels describes the event as follows:
Matthew 27:57-60: 57 As evening approached, there came a rich man from Arimathea, named Joseph, who had himself become a disciple of Jesus. 58 Going to Pilate, he asked for Jesus’ body, and Pilate ordered that it be given to him. 59 Joseph took the body, wrapped it in a clean linen cloth, 60 and placed it in his own new tomb that he had cut out of the rock. He rolled a big stone in front of the entrance to the tomb and went away.
John 20:1-5 20 Early on the first day of the week, while it was still dark, Mary Magdalene went to the tomb and saw that the stone had been removed from the entrance. 2 So she came running to Simon Peter and the other disciple, the one Jesus loved, and said, “They have taken the Lord out of the tomb, and we don’t know where they have put him!” 3 So Peter and the other disciple started for the tomb. 4 Both were running, but the other disciple outran Peter and reached the tomb first. 5 He bent over and looked in at the strips of linen lying there but did not go in.
33 – 68
In 34 AD, following the stoning of Stephen, the first Christian martyr, in Jerusalem, a wave of persecution swept through the early Christian community. This led to many followers of Jesus seeking refuge beyond the city, spreading their message to Jewish communities in Phoenicia, Cyprus, and particularly in Antioch. It's believed that Barnabas was dispatched to Antioch, possibly on the instruction of Peter. At that time, Antioch was a major urban center of the Roman Empire, ranked only behind Rome and Alexandria in Egypt in terms of importance. Around 40 AD, under the guidance of Barnabas and later Paul, Christian missionaries in Antioch began to increasingly direct their evangelistic efforts towards non-Jewish populations. This marked the beginning of Antioch's pivotal role as a hub for Christian missionary activity. Following the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, Antioch emerged as the preeminent center of Christianity, boasting the largest Christian community in the world at that time. It was in Antioch that the term "Christian" was first coined, earning the city the title "Cradle of Christianity." Additionally, St. Luke, a native of Antioch, composed both the Gospel according to Luke and the Acts of the Apostles within this vibrant city.
Peter's missionary endeavors are less clearly defined than Paul's well-documented journeys. While we don't have precise dates and routes for Peter's travels, insights can be gleaned from the First Epistle of Peter. This letter, possibly penned by Peter from Rome around 60-63 AD or by a follower between 70-90 AD, is a theological gem of the New Testament, offering deep insights into Christology, the nature of the Church, and Christian conduct. The epistle's greeting hints at Peter's missionary reach, addressing believers scattered across Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia. This suggests Peter's involvement in these regions, whether through direct visits or his influence. Further historical texts, like the fifth or sixth-century Doctrine of the Apostles, record Peter's foundational role in establishing the church in areas including Antioch, Syria, Cilicia, and Galatia, leading up to his time in Rome. Peter's timeline, traditionally accepted, includes:
Around 35 AD, Peter is believed to have played a key role in founding the church in Antioch, later returning to Jerusalem by around 40 AD, and being present there in 42 AD. In 42 AD, Peter faced threats from Herod Agrippa, leading to his miraculous escape from imprisonment. Despite Acts of the Apostles mentioning Peter's brief stay in Caesarea, many scholars speculate his journey led him to Rome, a significant center for the Jewish diaspora and fertile ground for spreading the Gospel. Peter is noted to have returned to Jerusalem around 44 AD for the Jerusalem Council, which took place circa 49-50 AD. This council was pivotal in deciding that Gentile converts need not fully adhere to Jewish customs, including circumcision. Following the council, tradition places Peter back in Antioch until around 54-55 AD, after which he is said to have embarked on a second journey to Rome. Peter's final years were spent evangelizing in Rome and Italy, culminating in his martyrdom under Emperor Nero, approximately between 64-68 AD. This timeline, while not exhaustive, sketches a broad outline of Peter's contributions to the early Christian mission, reflecting his pivotal role alongside Paul in the spread of Christianity.
50
Death of Edessa's King Abgar V. According to the early church historian Eusebius (c. 260-340), King Abgar V (BC 4–AD 50) of Edessa had written to Jesus asking Him to come and heal him and Jesus had replied to Abgar by letter promising that after His resurrection He would send one of His disciples to Edessa to heal Abgar and preach the Gospel. According to Eusebius, Thaddeus, one of the Seventy, did go to Edessa, healed Abgar V from Thaddeus, and commenced Christianity there. While historian J.B. Segal (1912–2003), considered that this account "may well have a substratum of fact," he regarded the part of it about the exchange of letters between Abgar V and Jesus, which Eusebius had personally read in Edessa's archives, was a "pious fraud," which unknown to Eusebius had been inserted into Edessa's archives in the time of Abgar VIII (177 to 212), who was the first Christian king of Edessa. But as will be seen, Eusebius' account says nothing about Abgar V being healed by an image of Jesus on a cloth, which later versions of the Abgar V story do say. The pilgrim Spanish nun Egeria in c.384 recorded that she had seen the text of Jesus' letter to Abgar V affixed to Edessa' city gate.
60
According to the 945 "Official History of the Image of Edessa", King Ma'nu VI reverted to paganism and persecuted Edessa's Christians. To ensure the safety of "the likeness of our Lord Jesus Christ not made by hand" which had been fastened to a board and embellished with gold, i.e. the Mandylion (the Shroud "four-doubled" = tetradiplon), was supposedly bricked up above the public gate of Edessa, where it had previously laid, and then was completely forgotten for almost five centuries until its discovery after another major flood in 525. However, this story is most implausible (did Ma'nu VI, or none of his officials, not notice, nor suspect, that the Mandylion they were seeking to destroy, was where it had previously been but only behind fresh brickwork?), and is more likely a "pious fraud" to give the Mandylion/Shroud, which is known in Edessa only from 544, a false back-history to the time of Jesus.
68 - 70
Between 68 and 70 AD, amidst the turmoil and onset of hostilities in Jerusalem involving Jewish zealots and Roman authorities, key Christian artifacts, including an "image of our Holy Lord and Savior," were transported out of the city for safety. This period followed the martyrdom of James in 62 AD and was marked by escalating tensions that eventually led to open conflict in 66 AD. Recognizing the imminent danger, members of the Jerusalem Church sought refuge, many heading towards Antioch and other safe havens in Syria. This exodus, including the safeguarding of sacred objects, is documented in a sermon attributed to Saint Athanasius, the 4th-century Bishop of Alexandria. Delivered during the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, Athanasius' sermon recounts the careful removal of a significant Christian relic, described as a full-length "image of our Lord and Savior," from Jerusalem to Syria around 68 AD, as part of the broader effort to protect the Christian community and its heritage from the perils of the Jewish-Roman conflict.
“But two years before Titus and Vespasian sacked the city, the faithful and disciples of Christ were warned by the Holy Spirit to depart from the city and go to the kingdom of King Agrippa II, because at that time Agrippa II was a Roman ally. Leaving the city, they went to his regions and carried everything relating to our faith. At that time even the icon with certain other ecclesiastical objects were moved and they today still remain in Syria. I possess this information as handed down to me from my migrating parents and by hereditary right. It is plain and certain why the icon of our Holy Lord and Savior came from Judaea to Syria." 1
70
In the year 70 A.D., Titus, who would later become Emperor, orchestrated the conclusive Roman assault on Jerusalem. This attack resulted in the extensive devastation of the city, including the demolition of the Jewish Second Temple. The primary targets of the Siege of Jerusalem were the Jewish zealots who had taken control of significant sections of the city, but the conflict inevitably affected any Christians who were still present. For those Christian refugees escaping the turmoil in Jerusalem, Antioch emerged as a likely haven.
2nd century (101-200)
150
Several second-century Christian writings record that the Shroud had been saved from Jesus' tomb: the Gospel of the Hebrews, the Acts of Pilate / Acts of Nicodemus, the Gospel of Peter and the Gospel of Gamaliel. This shows that second-century writers knew the Shroud existed in their day. They disagree about who saved it from the tomb, but they agree that it had been saved.
Here are the relevant quotes from the second-century Christian writings that mention the Shroud:
The Gospel of the Hebrews: "And when the Lord had given the linen cloth unto the servant of the priest, he went unto James and said unto him: 'Take, for the Lord hath risen from the dead and appeared unto Simon.'" (as quoted by Jerome in his Commentary on Matthew)
The Acts of Pilate / Acts of Nicodemus: "The Jews, therefore, said to Nicodemus: 'Thou art his disciple, and hast brought his funeral things hither, that we may not have authority over him.' Nicodemus saith to them: 'The funeral things which I brought hither, I did not bring as his disciple, but to bury him according to the usage of my fathers. And because he had been the benefactor of my life, how should I not have brought them?'" (as translated by M.R. James in The Apocryphal New Testament)
The Gospel of Peter: "But I and my companions were grieved, and being wounded in mind, we hid ourselves: for we were sought after by them as malefactors, and as wishing to set fire to the temple. And in the night in which the Lord's day dawned, when my companions and I were sleeping, there came a great sound from heaven, and the heavens were opened, and a man descended to us, and came and rolled away the stone from the door of the sepulchre, and sat upon it. And he shone with a great light, and he took the linen cloth which was put round the Saviour's head, and the cloth for his body, and laid them in a place by themselves." (as translated by M.R. James in The Apocryphal New Testament)
The Gospel of Gamaliel: "He went in, therefore, and saw the linen cloths lying; but the napkin that had been on his head was not lying with the linen cloths, but was rolled up in a place by itself. Then the other disciple also entered, who had come first to the tomb, and he saw, and believed. For as yet they did not know the scripture, that he must rise from the dead." (as quoted by Jerome in his Commentary on Matthew)
Note that the reference to the Shroud is indirect in some of these texts (e.g. the Gospel of Gamaliel), but scholars believe that the "napkin" or "cloth for his body" mentioned in these texts is likely a reference to the Shroud.
177
Accession of Edessa's king Abgar VIII, the Great. Abgar VIII (r. 177-212), also counted as Abgar IX. His full name was Lucius Aelius Septimius Megas Abgarus. He was a ruler of Osroene, a Syriac-speaking kingdom in Upper Mesopotamia, whose capital city was Edessa. Abgar VIII was Edessa's (and presumably the world's) first Christian king, as is evident from some of his coins which were the first to feature a Christian symbol: a prominent Christian cross on his crown (see below).
180
Abgar VIII has inserted into Edessa's archives fictitious correspondence between Abgar V and Jesus. This "pious fraud" became the basis of the "Legend of Abgar" which was added to and modified over subsequent centuries as more information about the Shroud became known. But the Abgar-Jesus letters were more likely a verbal request by Abgar and a reply by Jesus which were later transcribed into writing, with embellishments.
Got Questions: The consensus of Bible scholars is that the Letter of King Abgar to Jesus is fraudulent. The document was probably written in the third century AD and then placed where Eusebius would eventually find it. This is not to say that some sort of letter never existed. The question concerns the authorship and date of the letter. It is thought that the basis for the legend surrounding the letter is the Syrian king Abgar IX, who converted to Christianity in the late second century.
Although a fake, the Abgar Letter was believed to be real by many in the third-century church. The letter even found its way into liturgical use. Today, King Abgar is considered a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church (with feasts in his honor on May 11 and October 28) and in the Syriac Orthodox Church (with a feast on August 1). Biblical Christianity is defined by its authority: the sixty-six-book canon. It has no room for relics, images, or supposed letters from Jesus. The spurious Letter of King Abgar to Jesus is an argument for shunning any addendums, supplements, or additions to Scripture. 2
183
In the first century, the city of Edessa, now known as Urfa and located in southeast Turkey, served as a buffer kingdom between the Parthians in the east and the Romans in the west. Its population was diverse, including Syriac, Greek, Armenian, and Arabic speakers, with a significant Jewish community. By the 6th century, Edessa and the surrounding Assyrian region were home to a thriving Christian population. Most historians agree that Christianity began to gain influence in Edessa in the late 2nd century under the leadership of Abgar VIII, who was known as "The Great." A church sanctuary dating back to 201 AD has been discovered in the city (Segal 1970). However, when the Edessan Christians wrote their history in the 3rd century, they claimed that the Gospel had arrived in the city during the 1st century, brought by a disciple of Jesus named Addai and delivered to King Abgar V, a contemporary of Christ. Eusebius, in his Ecclesiastical History, included a brief version of this story from the late 3rd century, which referenced a famous letter from Jesus that was said to be kept in the archives of Edessa (Eusebius 1991: 43-47). During the tolerant rule of Roman Emperor Commodus (180-192), Abgar VIII requested Pope Eleutherus (175-189) to dispatch missionaries to Edessa. Under Abgar VIII's leadership, Edessa became the first Christian city in the world, as attested by a stone Christian cross located above a lion's head, once a fountain and now situated in modern-day Sanliurfa, the former Edessa. Despite the almost complete obliteration of Edessa's Christian past following the Muslim conquest in 1144, this cross has survived as a testament to the city's Christian roots. It is worth noting that the lion was the emblem of the Abgar dynasty, which lost its grip over Edessa after Abgar VIII's death in 212.
190
Around 190 AD, during the reign of Emperor Commodus, who was known for his indulgence in personal pleasures and his peaceful stance towards Christianity, King Abgar VIII, also known as Abgar the Great, ascended to the throne of the Mesopotamian kingdom of Oshroene, with its capital at Edessa, located roughly 145 miles northeast of Antioch. Abgar's reign, lasting until 212, witnessed significant Christian influences, including the construction of a Christian church in Edessa, the incorporation of Christian symbols on royal coins, and the convening of a Christian synod within his domain. The story of Abgar's conversion is documented in historical texts such as the Liber Pontificalis and the writings of the Venerable Bede. These accounts tell of a correspondence between "British King Lucius" and Pope Eleutherius, who was Pope from around 174 to 189, in which Lucius requested baptism and conversion to Christianity. However, this period in Britain was under Roman control, and there was no reigning king. Biblical scholar Adolph Harnack proposed that this mention of "Britannio Rege Lucio" was actually a reference to "Britio Edessenorum," or the citadel of Edessa, and King Lucius Ælius Septimius Megas Abgarus VIII, meaning King Abgar the Great of Edessa. This suggests that it was King Abgar who invited a papal mission to Edessa to introduce Christianity, an event that must have occurred before the death of Emperor Commodus in late 192, as his successor, Septimius Severus, was known for his opposition to Christianity.
The only recorded ecclesiastical mission from Rome to Mesopotamia in the late second century was undertaken by Avircius Marcellus, the Bishop of Hieropolis in Phrygia. While some historical accounts suggest that Avircius may have passed away around 167, these claims lack substantiation and are contradicted by references to Avircius' writings on Montanism, a heretical movement of the second century, which are believed to date back to around 193. Scholars such as William Ramsey, J. Tixeront, and Johannes Quasten, after a thorough analysis of historical texts, argue that Avircius likely lived until the end of the second century or possibly into the early years of the third century. This later timeline is supported by the existence of the so-called Inscription of Abercius, a significant monumental text from 192, which is attributed to Avircius. The Inscription of Abercius, a monument that encapsulates a figurative summary of the author's journeys, is believed to have been composed in a cryptic and allegorical manner. This style was likely employed to shield its Christian essence from those not privy to its meanings, a practice known as the Discipline of the Secret. Esteemed theologian Johannes Quasten has noted this inscription's mystical and symbolic nature. The text describes a summons to Rome by the pope to visit a "Queen Golden-robed and Golden-sandaled", speculated by some to be Shalmath, the wife of King Abgar VIII, who may have delivered her husband's request for baptism to Rome. The narrative continues, detailing the author's travels to Mesopotamia, including visits to all the cities of Syria, among them Antioch and Edessa, the latter being the preeminent city in eastern Syria at the time. The inscription also mentions a companion named "Paul," likely referring to the cleric "Palut," who is thought to have become the first bishop of Edessa. A pivotal aspect of the inscription is the mention of a "fish of exceeding great size" accompanied by "wine of great virtue" mixed with "bread." This imagery is significant given the early Christian use of the fish symbol (ΙΧΘΥΣ in Greek, an acronym for "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior") to denote Christ and identify Christian gathering spots and allies covertly. The inscription's reference to a "fish" coupled with "bread" and "wine" is interpreted as a metaphorical representation of Jesus, possibly suggesting the author carried a significant relic or image of Jesus, embodying both his physical representation ("bread") and his sacrifice ("wine").
It has been hypothesized that the author of the Inscription of Abercius might have transported the Shroud of Turin from Antioch to Edessa as part of the effort to support King Abgar VIII's conversion to Christianity, with the relic later being returned to Antioch. 3
Third century (201 - 300)
201
A major flood of its river devastates Edessa, thousands die, and the "church of the Christians" is damaged. This is the first mention anywhere of a Christian church building and is further evidence that Edessa had become a Christian city.
202
As a reward for assisting Rome in its war with Parthia, Abgar VIII was invited to Rome in 202, which he visited after 204.
205
Following the flood of 201, in 205 Abgar VIII built on higher ground within the walls of the old Edessa, a new walled Citadel, called "Birtha" in Syriac.
220
The "Hymn of the Pearl," a notable poem from the early third century, adds fascinating support to the theory that the Shroud played a role in King Abgar the Great's conversion to Christianity in Edessa. Composed no later than 224, this hymn employs a secretive and mystical style, mirroring the approach seen in the Inscription of Abercius. Its endorsement of certain non-orthodox beliefs points to Bardaisan, an Edessan Gnostic Christian philosopher and contemporary of Abgar, as its likely author. Given Bardaisan's close ties to the royal court, he would have had the opportunity to see the Shroud, assuming it was brought to Edessa by Avircius Marcellus. The poem's narrative, featuring a prince on a quest to retrieve a pearl from a serpent, symbolizes Jesus Christ's mission to redeem humanity from Satan. The prince's robe, initially without an image, comes to bear his likeness upon the successful completion of his quest, serving as a metaphor for the Shroud. 4
On a sudden, as I faced it,
The garment seemed to me like a mirror of myself.
I saw it all in my whole self,
Moreover, I faced my whole self in it,
For we were two in distinction
And yet again one in one likeness.
And the image of the King of kings
Was depicted in full all over it . . .
The prince's assertion that the robe epitomizes his "entire self" is in harmony with the Abercius Inscription, which speaks of a remarkably large fish. The hymn's portrayal of the robe's image as the "King of Kings" echoes the depiction of Jesus in the Book of Revelation, where he is named the King of Kings, stating that "The Lamb will overcome them for he is Lord of lords and King of Kings, and those with him are the called, chosen, and faithful." Indeed, there are numerous suggestions from Edessa that the Shroud was in the city during King Abgar's reign, which might have played a role in his conversion. 5
When observing a photograph of the Shroud, one notices two distinct full-length depictions of a man, with one image facing forward and the other facing backward. These are commonly referred to in contemporary language as the front-side and back-side images, or the ventral and dorsal images. Remarkably, they appear as if reflected in a mirror, maintaining full scale and appearing to stand perpendicular to the surface of the Shroud. The phrase "as though divided, yet one likeness" captures the essence of these two individual images that converge at the crown of the head.
190 - 306
Between 190 and 306, with the Shroud likely in Antioch, the Roman Empire renewed its persecutions of Christianity, which lasted for over a century. This period saw some of the most severe persecutions under emperors such as Septimius Severus, Maximinus the Thracian, Decius, Valerian, and notably Diocletian. Diocletian's reign marked the climax of these persecutions, culminating in a 303 decree to destroy all church buildings and burn all Christian texts. Christians faced systematic denial of civil rights and exclusion from government roles. During this era, the Bishop of Antioch was imprisoned and died in custody. Despite Emperor Constantine's control of the Western Empire from 306, his co-emperor Galerius continued to persecute Christians in Antioch. Throughout these ordeals, Christian leaders diligently maintained the Discipline of the Secret, safeguarding the secrecy of any surviving burial linens of Christ. The presence of early iconoclasts, who viewed images of God or Christ as sacrilegious, posed an additional threat to any relics with images. Around 260, Paul of Samosata, the Bishop of Antioch, began promoting a non-Trinitarian concept of God, leading to his removal from church duties. Following him, Lucian of Antioch, influenced by the teachings of Arius's student, argued against the eternal existence of Jesus as the Son of the Father. This teaching, known as Arianism, quickly gained traction among the Christian community in Antioch.
Fourth century (301 - 400)
During the period from 306 to 361 AD, known as the Constantine Era, Constantine the Great ruled as Roman Emperor. His reign, starting in 306 and concluding in 337, marked a significant turning point in Roman history, as Constantine was the first emperor to embrace Christianity. In a landmark move in 313, he promulgated the Edict of Milan, which legalized Christianity across the Roman Empire and effectively ceased the state-sponsored persecution of Christians. Constantine's strategic vision extended to the empire's geography; in 324, he shifted the imperial capital from Rome to Byzantium, an eastern city he renamed Constantinople. This city would later become the heart of the Byzantine Empire, a successor to the Roman Empire's eastern territories, which persisted for over a millennium until the Ottoman Empire captured it on May 29, 1453. The city underwent another transformation in 1930 when a Turkish law officially changed its name from Constantinople to Istanbul.
324
In 324, Constantine took a pivotal role in the organization of a regional synod consisting of Orthodox Bishops, which resulted in the election of a new Bishop for Antioch and the condemnation of Arius. Around the same time, he also commanded the construction of a church in Jerusalem, intended to replace a pagan temple that stood over the site believed to be Jesus' tomb. This church would later be recognized as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. During this period, Constantine's mother, Helen, who had also converted to Christianity, visited Jerusalem. Her mission was to find relics associated with the Passion of Christ. Among her discoveries were three nails believed to be from the Crucifixion and fragments purported to be from the "true cross," found in a Christian shrine close to the Holy Tomb. Helen sent two of these nails and a piece of the cross to Constantine. One nail was repurposed into his battle helmet, another into a bridle for his horse, and the cross fragment was integrated into a statue of Constantine himself. Such actions by the imperial family highlighted the significance of relics within the empire and served as a clear message to local church custodians about the value of such sacred items, further emphasizing the Discipline of the Secret. This period also saw the influence of iconoclasm, a belief originating from Judaism that cautioned against the use of religious images for fear of idolatry or improper worship. Even in Constantine's time, before the formal iconoclastic controversies of later centuries, this doctrine found some support within the Christian community, particularly in the Eastern Church, thereby reinforcing the cautious approach to the veneration and display of image-bearing Christian relics.
325
Constantine initiated the First Council of Nicaea to resolve the intensifying dispute over Arianism. The core of the controversy was theological: Orthodox Christians believed that the Son was of the same essence (consubstantial) and co-eternal with the Father, while Arians argued that Christ, though divine, was not co-eternal with the Father and had a beginning. The council, while not immediately reconciling these differences, laid the groundwork for what would become the Nicene Creed. This creed, finalized at the Council of Constantinople in 381, cemented the Orthodox understanding of Christ's nature. In Antioch, the council's decisions did little to heal the rift. Following Nicaea, Arius was exiled by the Orthodox leaders of Antioch, only for the Arian majority to later expel the Orthodox Bishop in 330. The conflict between Arian and Orthodox Christians escalated, engulfing the entire city in civil unrest. The situation became so volatile that Constantine had to send military forces to Antioch to quell the disturbances and restore peace. 6
330
Athanasius, the Bishop of Alexandria from 328 to 373, during the reign of Constantine the Great (c.272–337), who was the Roman Emperor from 306 to 337, confirmed the existence of a revered Christ-icon. He traced its origins back to Jerusalem in the year 68 and noted that it was located in Syria at the time—this was before the region of Edessa was considered part of Syria. In his seminal work "On the Incarnation," Athanasius referred to this icon as the image of Christ "not made by human hands," signifying its divine or miraculous origin. He highlighted that this icon had been transmitted through the ages from the time of the apostles. Furthermore, Athanasius connected the icon's history to King Abgar of Edessa, mentioning that it was kept in a church within Hierapolis, a city in Syria, thereby attesting to its venerable and storied past.
337
In 337, Constantine, the inaugural Christian Emperor of Rome, officially prohibited crucifixion across the Roman Empire, honoring Jesus Christ, the most renowned individual to have suffered this fate. This ban persisted in the remnants of the empire, extending through Europe. Given the widespread familiarity with crucifixion during the Roman period and its particularly gruesome nature, contemporary accounts, including the Bible and Roman-era writings, seldom provided explicit details of the practice. This omission likely stemmed from the general understanding of crucifixion's horrors and a desire to avoid discussing such a detestable subject. Consequently, a forger from medieval Europe, living approximately a millennium later, would lack the necessary knowledge of Roman crucifixion practices to accurately replicate such details on an artifact like the Shroud, suggesting that the Shroud's depiction of crucifixion bears an authenticity that transcends the knowledge of a later era.
338
St. Nino, who lived approximately between 296 and 340, spent her early years in Jerusalem starting around the year 308. By 338, she recorded in her memoirs an account she had received about the linen strips (referred to as "othonia" in Luke 24:12 and John 11:44). According to this account, these linens were initially taken by the wife of Pontius Pilate and transported to Pontus. However, they were later returned to Jerusalem. Regarding the "soudarion" mentioned in John 20:7, St. Nino had learned that it was taken by Peter, though its whereabouts at that time remained unknown.
337 - 361
Following the death of Constantine in 337, his middle son, Constantius, took over the Eastern Roman Empire and aligned himself with Arian Christianity. By 350, after the demise of his brothers, Constantius emerged as the sole ruler of the entire empire. In a significant shift in 357, Arians gained control of Antioch's previously Orthodox Golden Basilica, turning the city into a focal point for Arianism. During this era, references to an image-bearing icon have been found in texts. Theodore of Mopsuestia, hailing from Antioch, mentioned in his Catechesis how deacons would lay linens on the altar, symbolizing the burial cloths of Jesus, to evoke the image of Him in the sepulchre, as if He were lying there after His crucifixion. Furthermore, a sermon attributed to Athanasius, the Bishop of Alexandria during approximately the same period, recounted a tradition. It suggested that a full-body image of Jesus, created on boards, was transported from Jerusalem to Syria around 68 AD. This sermon also described how this image was subjected to acts mirroring the crucifixion: nails driven through the hands and feet, the head struck with a reed, and the side pierced, resulting in the outflow of blood and water. These details strikingly resemble the wounds depicted on the Shroud of Turin. Constantius's reign ended with his death in 361, after which his cousin Julian, known as "the Apostate" due to his rejection of Christianity in favor of paganism, ascended to power.
362
In 362, during Emperor Julian's visit to Antioch on October 22, the Temple of Apollo was struck by a fire that damaged its roof and a statue of Apollo. Julian, without evidence, accused Christians of the act and ordered the closure of the Great Cathedral, along with the seizure of its religious treasures. Before the confiscation could take place, an Arian presbyter named Theodorus concealed the treasures. Historian Gustavus Eisen notes that Theodorus was executed for refusing to disclose the location of the hidden treasures, maintaining silence on a crucial secret believed to involve these treasures. The hidden items are thought to have included the Shroud, as indicated by later developments. Firstly, during the rebuilding of Antioch between 528 and 538, an "awe-inspiring image of Christ, held in high veneration" was discovered near the city's Gate of the Cherubim. Secondly, the 945 Narratio de Imagine Edessena recounts that the Image of Edessa, once brought to Constantinople, had been concealed within a niche above a city gate, only to be discovered centuries later. Scholar Markwardt posits that this account might conflate incidents from Antioch and Edessa, suggesting that the Shroud was hidden in 362 in Antioch, in a niche above the Gate of the Cherubim. Additionally, forensic evidence related to the Shroud's history during this period emerged in 2002 when researchers Aldo Guerreschi and Michele Salcito presented findings that the Shroud bears a pattern of water stains. These stains suggest that the Shroud had been folded and stored in an ancient jar for an extended period, further supporting the theory of its concealment during Julian's reign.
363 -410
After the death of Julian "The Apostate" in 363, the Roman Empire saw the return of an Orthodox Christian emperor to the throne. By 380, Emperor Theodosius I declared Orthodox Christianity as the state religion, denounced Arianism as heretical, and expelled Arians from Antioch. This move also included the restoration of the Golden Basilica to the Orthodox Melkites. The consolidation of Orthodox doctrine was furthered by the Council of Constantinople in 381, which resulted in the final version of the Nicene Creed. Despite this, debates over the nature of the Trinity persisted throughout the 4th century, leading to enduring divisions within Christianity. The 5th century introduced a new theological debate regarding the dual nature of Christ's divinity and humanity, causing significant discord, especially in the Eastern Church and cities like Antioch. This dispute led to the fragmentation of the Antioch Christian community into four sects, each with its own bishop. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 attempted to address this controversy by affirming that Christ exists in two distinct natures, but this resolution resulted in a deep and lasting schism. Many in the Eastern Church felt the Council's decision was too simplistic and ignored nuanced theological points, attributing the division to the influence of the Western Latin Church. Pope Leo, the Roman Pontiff, who had not attended the council, had advocated for a more deliberative process to avoid schism, but his concerns were not heeded. The aftermath of Chalcedon saw major schisms, with Alexandria and most of the Christian communities in Syria, including Antioch, breaking away. This left three main Christian groups: the Nestorians, the Monophysites who rejected the Chalcedonian doctrine, and the Orthodox Melkites who accepted it. These divisions were not solely theological but also had political dimensions, especially with the Melkites' support for the Constantinopolitan government. About twenty years post-Chalcedon, the Monophysites took control of the Antioch church, leading to a break in communion with both Rome and Constantinople, a division that lasted through the patriarchy of Ephraemius (around 528-545). During this tumultuous period, the only allusions to an image of Christ akin to the Shroud come from Theodosian era (370-410) art, depicting Christ with features reminiscent of the Shroud: a long, narrow face, hair parted in the middle, and a medium-length beard.
Last edited by Otangelo on Tue Feb 06, 2024 3:48 pm; edited 2 times in total
